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AUTHOR: 


HARKNESS,ALBERT 


TITLE: 


LATIN  GRAMMAR  FOR 
SCHOOLS.... 

PLACE: 

NEW  YORK 

DA  TE : 

1881 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARGET 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


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877.5 
H2211 


D4TB- 


,z*:{-v:*-  ^ .  j-T,'  ,7?^  ,»•"»,*. A-T-'^'Tv 


h     \ 


Harkness,  Albert,  1822-1907. 

A  I.atin  grammar  for  schools  and  colleges.  By  fUbert 
Harkness  .  .  Rev.  ^fm^d  od.  of  1881.  New  York,  1). 
Appleton  and  company,  4*8^.-  1881. 

xvi,  430  p.    18J"". 

"Titles  of  works  cited"  :  p.  ixvi-xvi. 

Oopy  in  Sohool  of  L  ibas^eay-Seg^^»^ — l^Sl^ 
Another  copy  in  Plimpton  Library.  1881. 

1.  l.alin  laiiKuagc— Grammar— 1870- 


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J   PA2087.TI37    1885 


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A 


LATIN  GRAMMAR 


FOR 


SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES 


BY 


ALBERT   HARKNESS,  Ph.  D.,  LL.  D., 

PROFESSOR   IN  BROWN   UNIVERSITY. 


REVISED    EDITION 

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Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1874,  by 

D.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  ISSl,  by 
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NOTE  TO  THE  REVISED   GRAMMAR.^ 


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Future  editions  of  the  author's  Latin  Reader  and 
other  text-books  will  be  published  with  references  to 
the  new  Grammar.  With  the  help  of  the  table  on 
page  427,  however,  the  corresponding  references  to 
either  edition  of  the  Grammar  may  be  found  without 
inconvenience. 


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0     TiZJS;    REVISED    EDITION. 


ig:  g.ri' 


•^IU-V 


The  last  quarter  of  a  century  has  revealed  many  im- 
portant facts  in  the  development  of  language.  During 
this  period  philological  research  has  thrown  new  light 
upon  Latin  forms  and  inflections,  upon  the  laws  of  pho- 
netic change,  upon  the  use  of  cases,  moods,  and  tenses, 
and  upon  the  origin  and  history  of  numerous  construc- 
tions. The  student  of  Latin  grammar  is  now  entitled  to 
the  full  benefit  of  the  important  practical  results  which 
these  labors  in  the  field  of  linguistic  study  have  brought 
within  the  proper  sphere  of  the  school.  In  securing  this 
advantage,  however,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  divert  the 
attention  of  the  learner  from  the  one  object  before  him 
— the  attainment  of  a  full  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
language. 

The  volume  now  offered  to  the  pubHc  has  been  pre- 
pared in  view  of  these  facts.  It  is  the  result  of  a  thor- 
ough and  complete  revision  of  the  author's  Latin  Gram- 
mar published  in  1864.  To  a  large  extent,  indeed,  it  is 
a  new  and  independent  work ;  yet  the  paradigms,  rulea 
of  construction,  and  in  general  all  parts  intended  for 
recitation,  have  been  only  slightly  changed.  The  aim  c^^ 
the  work  in  its  present  form  is  threefold. 

1.  It  is  designed  to  present  a  clear,  simple,  and  con- 
venient outline  of  Latin  grammar  for  the  beginner.     It 


\ 


"""■^? 


IV 


PREFA  CE, 


accordingly  contains,  in  large  type,  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  leading  facts  and  laws  of  the  language,  ex- 
hibiting not  only  grammatical  forms  and  constructions, 
but  also  those  vital  principles  which  underlie,  control, 
and  explain  them.  The  laws  of  construction  are  put  in 
the  form  of  definite  rules,  and  illustrated  by  carefully 
selected  examples.  To  secure  convenience  of  reference, 
and  to  give  completeness  and  vividness  to  the  general 
outline,  these  rules,  after  having  been  separately  dis- 
cussed, are  collected  in  a  body  at  the  close  of  the  Syntax. 
Topics  which  require  the  fullest  illustration  are  first  pre- 
sented in  their  completeness  in  general  outline,  before 
the  separate  points  are  explained  in  detail.  Thus  a  single 
page  often  foreshadows  the  leading  features  of  an  ex- 
tended discussion,  imparting,  it  is  believed,  a  completeness 
and  vividness  to  the  impression  of  the  learner  impossible 
under  any  other  treatment. 

2.  It  is  intended  to  be  an  adequate  and  trustworthy 
grammar  for  the  advanced  student.  By  brevity  and  con- 
ciseness of  phraseology,  and  by  compactness  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  forms  and  topics,  an  ample  collection  of 
the  most  important  grammatical  facts,  intended  for  refer- 
ence, has  been  compressed  within  the  limits  of  a  con- 
venient manual.  Care  has  been  taken  to  explain  and 
illustrate,  with  the  requisite  fullness,  all  difficult  and  in- 
tricate subjects.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  and  the  Indirect 
Discourse  have  received  special  attention. 

3.  In  a  series  of  foot-notes  it  aims  to  bring  within  the 
reach  of  the  student  some  of  the  more  important  results 
of  recent  linguistic  research.  Brief  explanations  are 
given  of  the  working  of  phonetic  laws,  of  the  nature  of 
inflection,  of  the  origin  of  special  idioms,  and  of  various 
facts  in  the  growth  of  language.  But  the  distinguishing 
feature  of  this  part  of  the  work  consists  in  the  abundant 


PREFA  CE,  ^ 

references  which  are  made  to  some  of  the  latest  and  best 
authorities  upon  the  numerous  linguistic  questions  natur- 
ally suggested  by  the  study  of  Latin  grammar.* 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  indicate,  as  far  as 
practicable,  the  natural  quantity  of  vowels  before  two 
consonants  or  a  double  consonant.' 

With  this  brief  statement  of  its  design  and  plan,  this 
volume  is  now  respectfully  committed  to  the  hands  of 
classical  teachers. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  is  happy  to  express  his 
grateful  acknowledgments  to  the  numerous  friends  who 
have  favored  him  with  valuable  suggestions. 

1  See  page  xv.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  an  acquaintance  with  the  authori- 
ties here  cited  is  by  no  means  to  be  regarded  as  an  indispensable  qualification  for  the 
work  of  classical  instnictioD.  The  references  are  intended  especially  for  those  who 
adopt  the  historical  method  in  the  study  of  language. 

2  See  page  4,  foot-note  4 ;  also  page  9,  note  3. 


Brown  University,  Providence,  R.  L, 
July,  1881, 


00]^TEI>rTS. 


PART     FIR  ST. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.  pagb 

Alphabet J 

Roman  Method  of  Pronunciation ^ 

English  Method ^ 

Continental  Method ^ 

Quantity ^ 

Accentuation z* 

rhonetic  Changes ^^ 

I.  Changes  in  Vowels J  * 

II.  Changes  in  Consonants 1^ 


PART     SECON  D. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER    I. 

KOUNS. 

Gender ^^ 

Person,  Number,  and  Case  .        . , ^^ 

Declension ^^ 

First  Declension ^^ 

Greek  Nouns ^^ 

Second  Declension ^^ 

Greek  Nouns ^^ 

Third  Declension ^^ 

Class  I. — Consonant-Stems f^ 

Stems  in  a  Labial ^ 

Stems  in  a  Dental ^J 

Stems  in  a  Guttural ^^ 

Stems  in  a  Liquid  or  a  Nasal ^3 

Stems  in  >S' ^* 

Class  II.—LStems ^^ 

Special  Paradigms ^ 

Greek  Nouns J^ 

Synopsis  of  the  Third  Declension 41 

Gender *        '        '        '         *  1« 

Fourth  Declension ^^ 


^.  m.,:■^~<l,m.•'■■:-'^■-'■^^^■^ 


mm 


-^mmm 


Vlll 


CONTENTS. 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


PAGE 

Fifth  Declension 50 

General  Table  of  Gender 61 

Declension  of  Compound  Nouns 52 

Irregular  Nouns .58 

I.  Indeclinable 53 

II.  Defective 53 

III.  Heteroclites 56 

IV.  Heterogeneous 56 

• 

CHAPTER    II. 

ADJECTIVES. 

First  and  Second  Declensions 57 

Third  Declension 59 

Irregular  Adjectives 62 

Comparison 03 

I.  Terminational  Comparison 63 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison 65 

Numerals 65 

CHAPTER    III. 

PKONOUNS. 

I.  Personal  Pronouns 70 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns 71 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns 72 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns 74 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns 75 

VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns 76 

Table  of  Correlatives 77 

CHAPTER    IV. 

VERBS. 

Voices,  Moods 78 

Tenses 80' 

Numbers,  Persons 81 

Infinitive,  Gerund,  Supine 81 

Participle 82 

Conjugation 82 

Paradigms  of  Verbs 84 

Comparative  View  of  Conjugations 102 

Verbs  in  i5:  Conjugation  III '106 

Verbal  Inflections 108 

Synopsis  of  Conjugation 110 

Deponent  Verbs 114 

Periphrastic  Conjugation 1 14 

Peculiarities  in  Conjugation 115 

Analysis  of  Verbal  Endings 117 

I.  Tense-signs 117 

II.  Mood-signs 117 

III.  Personal  Endings         .• 118 


Formation  of  Stems 

I.  Present  Stem 
II.  Perfect  Stems 
III.  Supine  Stem 

Classification  of  Verbs  . 
First  Conjugation 
Second  Conjugation 
Third  Conjugation 
Fourth  Conjugation 

Irregular  Verbs 

Defective 

Impersonal 


PAGE 

119 
119 
121 
122 
122 
122 
124 
127 
134 
135 
141 
143 


CHAPTER    V. 


PAUTICLES. 

Adverbs         ...........  144 

Table  of  Correlatives 147 

Comparison 149 

Prepositions 149 

Conjunctions 150 

Interjections 152 

CHAPTER  VI. 


FORMATION    OF    WOKDS 


I.  Roots,  Stems,  Suffixes     . 

Primary  Suffixes 
II.  Derivation  of  Words 
Derivative  Nouns    . 
Derivative  Adjectives 
Derivative  Verbs     . 
III.  Composition  of  Words    . 
Compound  Nouns    . 
Compound  Adjectives 
Compound  Verbs    . 


152 
155 
158 
158 
165 
169 
172 
173 
174 
175 


PART     THIRD. 


SYNTAX. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 


I.  Classification  of  Sentences 
II.  Elements  of  Sentences 


179 
182 


CONTENTS, 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


ct 


CHAPTER     II. 


SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS 

I.  Agreement  of  Nouns    . 
Predicate  Nouns  . 
Appositives 
II.  General  View  of  Cases     . 
III.  Nominative,  Vocative  . 
I.  Nominative  . 
II.  Vocative  . 
IV    Accusative 

I.  Direct  Object    . 

Two  Accusatives 
II.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense 
Accusative  of  Specification 
Accusative  of  Time  and  Space 
Accusative  of  Limit  . 
III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations 

V.  Dative 

Dative  with  Verbs — Indirect  Objt 
Dative  with  Special  Verbs 
Dative  with  Compounds 
Dative  of  Possessor  . 
Dative  of  Apparent  Agent     . 
Ethical  Dative  . 
Two  Datives  .... 
Dative  with  Adjectives 
Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs 

VI.  Genitive 

Genitive  with  Nouns 
Genitive  with  Adjectives 
Predicate  Genitive    . 
Genitive  with  Special  Verbs 
Accusative  and  Genitive   . 

VII.  Ablative 

I.  Ablative  Proper 

Ablative  of  Place  from  which 
Ablative  of  Separation,  Source, 
Ablative  with  Comparatives 
II.  Instrumental  Ablative 

Ablative  of  Accompaniment 
Ablative  of  Means 
Ablative  in  Special  Constructions 
Ablative  of  Price  . 
Ablative  of  Difference 
Ablative  of  Specification 
III.  Locative  Ablative 

Ablative  of  Place  . 
Ablative  of  Time 
Ablative  Absolute 
VIII.  Cases  with  Prepositions  . 


CHAPTER  in. 

SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


Cause 


PAGE 

184 

184 

185 

186 

187 

187 

188 

189 

189 

191 

193 

193 

194 

195 

196 

196 

197 

199 

201 

202 

202 

203 

204 

204 

205 

206 

206 

210 

212 

213 

215 

217 

218 

218 

218 

222 

223 

223 

224 

225 

226 

226 

227 

227 

227 

229 

231 

232 


Agreement  of  Adjectives 
Use  of  Adjectives 


PAGE 

239 
241 


CHAPTER  IV. 

SYNTAX  OF  PEONOUNS. 

Agreement  of  Pronouns 244 

Use  of  Pronouns 246 

Personal,  Possessive 246 

Reflexive 247 

Demonstrative 248 

Relative 251 

Interrogative 252 

Indefinite   ...........  252 

CHAPTER     V. 


SYNTAX  OF  VERBS. 

I.  Agreement  of  Verbs — Use  of  Voices  . 

II.  Indicative  and  its  Tenses 

Tenses  of  Indicative         ..... 
Use  of  Indicative         ...... 

III.  General  View  of  the  Subjunctive  and  its  Tenses 

IV.  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses     .... 

Subjunctive  of  Desire 

Potential  Subjunctive 

V.  Imperative  and  its  Tenses 

VI.  Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses  .... 

I.  Tenses  of  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses 
II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose 

III.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Result 

IV.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences    . 
V.  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses 

VI.  Moods  in  Causal  Clauses        .... 
VII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses 
VIII.  Indirect  Discourse         ..... 
3Ioods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse 
Persons  and  Pronouns  in  Indirect  Discourse 
Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse 

Indirect  Clauses 

VII.  Infinitive — Substantive  Clauses   .... 

I.  Infinitive 

Infinitive  with  Verbs     .... 
Accusative  and  Infinitive  with  Verbs 
Subject  of  Infinitive       .... 

Tenses  of  Infinitive 

Infinitive  in  Special  Constructions 
II.  Substantive  Clauses 


254 

257 
257 
262 
264 
265 
265 
266 
268 
269 
269 
273 
276 
280 
287 
289 
291 
296 
296 
299 
299 
301 
306 
306 
306 
308 
310 
311 
313 
cl4 


\ 


xii  CONTENTS, 

PAOE 

VIII.  Gerunds,  Gerundives,  Supines,  and  Participles     .         .        .  314 

I.  Gerunds 314 

II.  Gerundives 31g 

III.  Supines 31Y 

IV.  Participles *    .    *    .    *    .    *  318 

ciiaptj:r  VI. 

SYNTAX  OF  PARTICLES. 

^^^?^bs 320 

Conjunctions 32 1 

Interjections 324 

CHAPTER   VII. 

Rules  of  Syntax 324 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

AREANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  AND  CLAUSES. 

Arrangement  of  Words 333 

Arrangement  of  Clauses *    .        ,    '  335 


CONTENTS. 


PART     FOURTH. 


PROSODY. 

CHAPTER    I 

QUANTITY. 
I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity 
n.  Quantity  in  Final  Syllables     . 

III.  Quantity  in  Increments 

Increments  of  Declension   . 
Increments  of  Conjugation 

IV.  Quantity  of  Derivative  Endings 
V.  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables 


.  338 
339 

.  342 
342 

.  344 
344 

.     346 


CHAPTER  II. 

VERSIFICATION. 


I.  General  View  of  the  Subject  . 
Peet        .... 
Verses        .... 
Figures  of  Prosody 


349 
350 
351 
353 


II.  Varieties  of  Verse 

I.  Dactylic  Hexameter 
II.  Other  Dactylic  Verses 
in.  Trochaic  Verse 
IV.  Iambic  Verse        .... 

V.  Ionic  Verse 

VI.  Logaoedic  Verse  .... 
in.  Versification  of  the  Principal  Latin  Poets 
Vergil,  Juvenal,  Ovid,  Horace     . 
Lyric  Metres  of  Horace 
Index  to  Lyric  Metres  of  Horace      . 
Catullus,  Martial,  Seneca,  Plautus,  Terence 


XUl 

PAGE 

354 
354 
358 
359 
360 
361 
362 
364 
364 
364 
368 
368 


APPENDIX. 

I.  Figures  of  Speech  .        .        .         .     ^ 3*70 

II.  Latin  Language  and  Literature  .         .*       .         .         .         .         .374 

in.  Roman  Calendar 376 

IV.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures 378 

V.  Roman  Names 380 

Abbreviations  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .380 

VI.  Vowels  before  Two  Consonants  or  a  Double  Consonant  .         .         381 

Index  of  Verbs 383 

General  Index ^^^ 


T^  V 


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TITLES    OF    AYORKS    CITED 

IN    THE    FOOT-NOTES    OF    THIS    GRAMMAR. 

Acta  Soeidatis  PMlologae  Lipsiensis.    Lipsiae,  1870-1881. 

Allen,  F.  D.     Remnants  of  Early  Latin.     Boston,  1880. 

Bopp,  F.      Vergleichende  Grammatik,^    Berlin,  3d  ed.,  1870. 

Brambach,  W.     Hulfsbuchlein  fur  lateinische  Rechtschreihung,^     Leipzig", 

2d  ed.,  1876.  .  | 

BtJCHELER,  F.     Grundriss  der  lateinischen,  Declination.^    Leipzig,  1866. 
Christ,  W.     Metrik  der  GriechenLund  Romer.    Leipzig,.  1874. 
CoRSSEN,    W^^  Aussprache^     Voccl^smus,   und    BetonuJi^  der    lateinischen 

i^rache,     j^ipzig,  2d  ed.,  1868] 
C^ssEN,  W.     Kritische  Beitrdge.     Leipzig,  1863. 

CuRTius,  G.    Zur  Chronologic  der  indo-gerrnanischen  SpracJiforschung.    Leip- 
zig, 2d  ed.,  1873. 
CuRTius,  G.     Das  Verhum  ^er  griechischen,  Sprache.    Leipzig,  1876. 
Delbruck,  B.     Ablativ^  LoSldis^  Instrumentalis,    Berlin,  1867. 
DelbriJck,  B.      Derlljpebra^clmds^   Conjunctms  und    Opiativs  im  Sanskrit 

und  Griechisciien.*    Halle,  1871.  M 

Draeger,  a.    Histb^che  Syntax,  der  lateinischen  Sprache.    Leipzig,  1878. 
Ellis,  A.  J.     Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin.    London,  1874. 
Foerster,  W.     Bestimmung  der  lateinischen   Quantitdt  aus  dent  Roman- 

ischen.     Rheinisches  Museum,  xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299.    Frankfurt  am  Main. 
IIartung,  J.  A.     Ueber  die  Casus,  ihre  Bildung  und  Bedeutung,     Erlangen, 

1831. 
Hoffmann,  E.    Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  ZeitparUkeln.    Wien,  1873. 
HoLZWEissiG,  Fr.     Localistische  Casustheorie.    Leipzi^^Bl''?. 
IltJBscnaiANN,  H.     Zur  Casudehre.    Munchen,  18( 

Jolly,  J.     Geschichte  des  Infinitivs  im  Indo-gerrg^^Shen.     MuncJenMl873. 
KuHN,    A.     Zeitschrift  fur  vergleichende  Sprq^^gchun^s^QV^n,  §851- 

1881. 


^  The  publication  of  this  work  in  1833  marked  an  aa  iAffjB^ical  studiB. 
3  See  also  Bbambach,  W.    Die  ^eugestaltung^erfii^Tnischen  Oj^oj^pkie. 
Leipzig,  1868. 

3  An  edition  with  modifications  by  J.  Windekil^j^ajIPublisbed  a^^^^879. 

*  Two  other  valuable  works  by  the  same  autl 

1.  Die  Grundlagen  der  griechisch^n  Sy^^^  Halle,  1879. 

2.  Einleitung  in  das  Sprachstudium.  ^fpzi^,  1880.    This  last  work  forms  the 

fourth  volume  in  the  series  of  IndjEuropean  j^ammars  now  in  course  of 
publication. 

*  This  periodical  contains  the  latest  views  upon  numerous  questions  connected  with 
comparative  philology  and  linguistic  science. 


XVI 


TITLES  OF  WORKS  CITED. 


K^HNER,  R.  AusfuJirliche  Grammatik  der  latdniscTien  Sprache.  Hanno- 
ver, 1879. 

Li&BBERT,  E.    Die  Syntax  'von  Quom.    Breslau,  1870. 

Merouet,  H.     Lateinische  FormenUldung.     Berlin,  1870. 

Meyer,  G.     Griechische  Grammatik.^    Leipzig,  1880. 

MCller,  L.  Orthographiae  et  Prosodiae  Latinae  Summarium,  Lipsiae, 
1878. 

MiJller,  L.     De  Re  Metrica  Poetarum  Latinorum  Hhri  VIL    Lipsiae,  1861. 

M0LLER,  Max.  The  Science  of  Language,  London  and  New  York,  2d  ed., 
1868. 

MuNRO,  H.  A.  J.     The  Pronunciation  of  Latin.    Cambridge,  1874. 
Nagelsbach,  C.  F.    Lateinische  Stilistik.     Ntirnberg,  2d  ed.,  1852. 
Papillon,  T.  L.     a  Manual  of  Comparative  Philology.     Oxford,  2d  ed., 

1877. 
Peile,  J.     Greek  and  Latin  Etymology.     London,  2d  ed.,  1872. 
Penka,   K.     Die  JSlominalflexion  der  indo-germanischen  Spraclien,     Wien, 

1878. 

Priscianus,  C.     Institutionnm  Grammaticarum  lihri  XV III.     Lipsiae,  1855. 
Ramsay,  W.     Latin  Prosody.    London,  2d  ed.,  1859. 

RiTscuL,  Fr.  Unsere  heutige  Aussprache  des  Latein.  Rheinisches  Museum, 
xxxi.,  pp.  481-492. 

RoBY,  H.  J.  A  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language  from  Plautits  to  Sueto- 
nius.    London,  1874. 

Rumpel,  Th.    Die  Camslehre.    Ilalle,  1845. 

Schleicher,  Aug.  Compendium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik.  "Wei- 
mar, *1 866.  • 

Schmidt,  J.  H.  H.  Leitfaden  in  der  Rhythmik  und  Metrik  der  classisch- 
en  Sprachen.  Leipzig,  1869.  A  translation  by  Professor  White  has 
been  published  in  Boston,  1878. 

ScHMiTz,  W.     Beitrdge  zur  lateinischen  Sprachkunde.    Leipzig,  1877. 

ScHOLL,  F.  Veterum  Grammaticoi^um  de  Accentu  Linguae  Latinae  Testi- 
monia.    Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipsiensis,  vi.,  pp.  71-215. 

Sievers,  E.     Grundziige  der  Lautphysiologie.^    Leipzig,  1876. 

Spengel,  a.    Plautusy  Eritik,  Prosodie,  Metrik.     Gottingen,  1865. 

Transactions  of  the  American  Philological  Association.  Hartford,  18G9- 
1881. 

Vanicek,  a.  Griechisch-lateinisches  etymologisches    Worterhuch.     Leipzig 

1877. 

Whitney,  W.  D.     The  Life  and  Growth  of  Language.    New  York,  1875. 

Wordsworth,  J.     Fragments    and   Specimens    of   Early    Latin,     Oxlbrd 

1874.  ' 


1  This  work  of  Sievers  forms  the  first  volume  and  that  of  Meyer  the  third  in  the 
series  of  Indo-European  grammars  now  in  course  of  publication. 


LATIN  GRAMMAE. 


1 .  LATiiq"  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  Latin 
language.     It  comprises  four  parts  : 

I.  Orthography,  which  treats  of  the  letters  and  sounds 
of  the  language. 

II.  Etymology,  which  treats  of  the  classification,  inflec- 
tion, and  derivation  of  words. 

III.  Syntax,  which  treats  of  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences. 

IV.  Prosody,  which  treats  of  quantity  and  versification. 


PART  FIRST. 
OETHOGEAPHY 


ALPHABET. 

2.  The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  the  English  with 
the  omission  of  w.^ 

*  The  Romans  derived  their  alphabet  from  the  Greek  colony  at  Cumae.  In  its  ori^- 
nal  form  it  contained  twenty-one  letters :  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  H,  I,  K,  L,  M,  N,  0,  P, 
Q,  R,  S,  T,  U,  X,  Z.  C  was  a  modification  of  the  Greek  gamma,  and  F  of  the  digam- 
ma.  Q  was  the  Greek  koppa,  which  early  disappeared  from  the  Greek  alphabet.  C  had 
the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  g ;  K^  the  sound  afterward  denoted  by  c.  Z  early  dis- 
appeared from  the  Latin  alphabet,  but  was  subsequently  restored,  though  only  in  foreign 
words.  Throughout  the  classical  period  only  capital  letters  were  used.  On  the  Alphabet^ 
see  Whitney,  pp.  59-70:  Papillon,  pp.  28-48;  Wordsworth,  pp.  5-10;  Eoby,  I.,  pp.  21-62; 
Sievers,  pp.  24-103 ;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  1-546 ;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  85-49. 

1 


•ggiKmtt^''  ■»».«.*-«.  i^-*rv..  ■ 


3 


ALPHABET. 


1.  C  in  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  supplied  the  place  both  of  Cand  of  G, 

2.  G,  introduced  in  the  third  century  b.  c,  was  formed  from  C  by  simply 
changing  the  lower  part  of  that  letter. 

3.  Even  in  the  classical  period  the  original  form  C  was  retained  in  ab- 
breviations of  proper  names  beginning  with  G,    Thus  C.  stands  for  Gdius^ 

Cn,  for  Gnaeus,     See 

^4.  «7,  y,  modifications  of  /,  ^,  introduced  in  the  seventeenth  century  of  our 
"era  to  distinguish  the  consonant  /,  i  from  the  vowel  7,  i,  are  rejected  by  many 

recent  editors,  but  retained  by  others.» 
^  6.  The  letters  u  and  v^  originally  designated  by  the  character  F,^  are  now 


^  ysfi 


used  in  the  best  editions,  the  former  as  a  vowel,  the  latter  as  a  consonant. 
^  6.  In  classical  Latin,  Ic  is  seldom  used,  and  y  and  z  occur  only  in  foreign 


words,  chiefly  in  those  derived  from  the  Greek. 

3.  Letters  are  divided  according  to  the  position  of  the 
vocal  organs  at  the  time  of  utterance  into  two  general 
classes,  vowels  and  consonants/  and  these  classes  are  again 
divided  into  various  subdivisions,  as  seen  in  the  following 

ClassifiCxVtion  of  Letters. 

I.    VOWELS. 


1.  Open  vowel* 

2.  Medial  towels 

3.  Close  vowels^ 


1 


u 


1  Throughout  the  classical  period,  /,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  sup- 
plied the  place  of  /,  i  and  /,  j.  As  practical  convenience  has,  however,  already  sanc- 
tioned the  use  of  i,  «,  and  iJ,  characters  unknown  to  the  ancient  Romans,  may  it  not  also 
justify  the  use  of  J^  j  in  educational  works,  especially  as  the  Romans  themselves  at- 
tempted to  find  a  suitable  modification  of  /  to  designate  this  consonant? 

2  Originally  F,  used  both  as  a  vowel  and  as  a  consonant,  supplied  the  place  of  U,  u 
and  V,  v,  but  it  was  subsequently  modified  to  U, 

»  If  the  vocal  organs  are  suflSciently  open  to  allow  an  uninterrupted  fiow  of  vocal 
Bound,  a  vowel  is  produced,  otherwise  a  consonant ;  but  the  least  open  vowels  are  scarcely 
distinguishable  from  the  most  open  consonants.  Thus  i,  sounded  fully  according  to  the 
ancient  pronunciation  as  ee,  is  a  vowel ;  but,  combined  with  a  vowel  in  the  same  syllable, 
it  becomes  a  consonant  with  the  Bound  of  y :  e'-l  (d'-ee,  vowel),  e'-Jus  {d'-yus,  conso- 
nant, almost  identical  in  sound  with  d'-ee-us). 

*  In  pronouncing  the  open  vowel  a  as  in  father,  the  vocal  organs  are  fully  open.  By 
gradually  contracting  them  at  one  point  and  another  we  produce  In  succession  the  medial 
vowels,  the  close  vowels,  the  semivowels,  the  nasals,  the  aspirate,  the  fricatives,  and 
finally  the  mutes,  in  pronouncing  which  the  closure  of  the  vocal  organs  becomes  complete. 

*  E  is  &  medial  vowel  between  the  open  a  and  the  close  i,  o  &  medial  vowel  between 
the  open  a  and  the  close  u;  i  is  a  palatal  vowel,  u  a  labial ;  y  was  introduced  from  the 
Greek.  The  vowel  scale,  here  presented  In  the  form  of  a  triangle,  may  be  represented  as 
a  line,  with  a  in  the  middle,  with  i  at  the  palatal  extreme,  and  with  u  at  the  labial  extreme  ; 

i  a  a  o  u 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION, 


H,    CONSONANTS. 

Gutturals. 

Dentals. 

La 

.BIALS 

•           •           • 

1  or  J  = 

y 

V 

=  W 

•           • 

ni 

U 

m 

•           •           • 

h 

•           • 

l,r 

•           • 

8 

f 

•           • 

g 

d 

b 

•           • 

c,k,  q 

t 

P 

1.  Semivowels,  sonant 

2.  Nasals,  sonant 

3.  Aspirate,  surd 

4.  Fricatives,  comprising 

1.  Liquids^  sonant     . 

2.  SpirantSy  surd 

5.  Mutes,  comprising 

1.  Sonant  Mutes 

2.  Surd  Mutes 

Note  1.— Observe  that  the  consonants  are  divided, 

I.  According  to  the  organs  chiefly  employed  in  their  production,  into 

1.  Gutturals— ^Aroa^  letters^  also  called  Palatals ; 

2.  Dentals — teeth  letters^  also  called  Linguals ; 

3.  Labials — lip  letters, 

11.  According  to  the  manner  in  which  they  are  uttered,  into 

1.  Sonants,  or  voiced  letters  ; 

2.  Surds,  or  voiceless  letters.'^ 

Note  2. — X-  cs,^  and  z  =  ds,  are  double  consonants,  formed  by  the  union 
of  a  mute  with  the  spirant  s. 

4.  Diphthongs  are  formed  by  the  union  of  two  rowels 
in  one  syllable. 

Note. — The  most  common  diphthongs  are  ae,  oe^  au^  and  eu,    Ei^  oi, 
and  ui  are  rare.* 

ROMAN  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.^ 
6.  Vowels. — The  vowel  sounds  are  the  following  : 


*  With  the  sound  of  n  in  concord^  linger.  It  occurs  before  gutturals :  congresstts, 
meeting. 

2  The  distinction  between  a  sonant  and  a  surd  will  be  appreciated  by  observing  the 
difference  between  the  sonant  b  and  its  corresponding  surd  p  in  such  words  as  bad,  pad, 
B  is  Tocalized,  j:>'is  not.  • 

^  X  often  represents  the  union  of  g  and  s,  but  in  such  cases  g  is  probably  first  assimi- 
lated to  c ;  see  30,  33, 1. 

*  Proper  diphthongs  were  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  an  open  or  medial  vowel, 
a,  «,  or  o,  with  a  close  vowel,  i  or  w,  as  ai,  ei,  oi,  au,  eu,  ou.  An  improper  diphthong 
was  also  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  close  vowels,  as  ui.^  For  the  weakening  of  these 
original  diphthongs,  see  33,  note. 

*»  In  this  country  three  distinct  methods  are  recognized  in  the  pronunciation  of  Latin. 
They  are  generally  known  as  the  Roman,  the  English,  and  the  Continental  Methods. 
The  researches  of  Ck)rssen  and  others  have  revealed  laws  of  phonetic  change  of  great 
value  in  tracing  the  history  of  Latin  words.  Accordingly,  whatever  method  of  pronun- 
ciation may  be  adopted  for  actual  use  in  the  class-room,  the  pupil  should  sooner  or 
later  be  made  familiar  with  the  leading  features  of  the  Eoman  Method,  which  is  at  least 
an  approximation  to  the  ancient  pronunciation  of  the  language. 


\ 


ROMAN  METHOD   OF  FRONUNCIATIOK. 


a-ris} 


Long. 
a  like  a  in  father : 
§  "  e  "  prey:^  I'-dl, 
i  "  i  "  machine :  ^  x'.rl, 
5    "     o  "  old:  o'-r«5. 

u    "    w  "  rule '? 


u'-no. 


Short. 

a  like  a  in  Cuba :  ^  a -met, 

e    "    e  "  net:  r^'-^^^. 

i     "     ^  "  cigar:  vi'-deL 

o    "     o  '*  obey:  mo' -net. 


u 


i( 


2/ 


u 


full: 


su  -mus. 


1.  A  short  vowel  in  a  long  syllable  is  pronounced  short :  sunt,^  u  as  in 
mm.,  su'-mus.    But  see  16,  note  2. 

2.  Y,  found  only  in  Greek  words,  is  in  sound  intermediate  between  the 
Latin  i  and  u,  similar  to  the  French  u  and  the  German  u :  Ny-sa, 

3.  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another  vowel, 
is  a  semivowel  with  the  sound  ofy  in  yet  (7) :  A-cha-ia  (A-ka'-ya). 

4.  TJ6  in  qn^  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound  of 
w  :  qui  (kwe),  lin'-gua  (lin'-gwa),  sua-sit  (swii'-sit). 

6.  Diphthongs.— In  diphthongs  each  vowel  retains  its 
own  sound  : 

ae  (for  ai)  like  the  English  ay  (yes) :  m^n'-sae.^ 
au  like  ow  in  ho\r :  cau'-m, 

oe  (for  01)  Hke  oi  in  coin :  foe -dm. 

1.  Ei  as  in  veil^  eu  with  the  sounds  of  e  and  u  combined,  and  oi^oe^ 
occur  in  a  few  words :  dein;!  neu'-ter^  ^proin.f 

7.  Consonants.  —  Most  of  the  consonants  are  pro- 
nounced nearly  as  in  English,  but  the  following  require 
special  notice  : 

c  like  k  in  king:  ce'-les  (kay-lace),  ci -vi  (ke-we). 


g 


li 


g  "  get :     re'-gnnt,  re'-gis,  ge'-nus. 


1  The  Latin  vowels  marked  with  the  sigD  "  are  long  in  quantity,  i.  e.,  in  the  dura- 
tion  of  the  sound  (16);  those  not  marked  are  short  in  quantity;  see  16,  note  3. 

2  Or  e  Uke  a  in  made,  \  Hke  e  in  m^,  and  u  like  oo  in  moon. 

»  The  short  vowels  can  be  only  imperfectly  represented  by  English  equivalents  In 
theory  they  bave  the  same  sounds  as  the  corresponding  long  vowels,, but  occupy  only 
half  as  much  time  in  utterance. 

*  Observe  the  difference  between  the  length  or  quantity  of  the  vowel  and  the  length 
or  quantity  of  the  syllable.  Here  the  vowel  u  is  short,  but  the  syllable  %unt  is  long- 
see  16, 1.  In  syllables  long  irrespective  of  the  length  of  the  vowels  contained  in  them  it 
is  often  difficult  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible  to  determine  the  natural  quantify 
of  the  vowels ;  but  it  is  thought  advisable  to  treat  vowels  as  short  in  all  situations  where 
there  are  not  good  reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

»  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  in- 
stances  by  the  preceding  consonant,  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.    See  PapiUon  d 
60;  Peile,  p.  388;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69,  70,  and  85.  * 

•  Combining  the  sounds  of  a  and  i, 

7^  When  pronounced  as  monosyllables  In  poetry  (669,  II.) ;  otherwise  as  dissyllables  • 
de-tn,  pro'-in,  . 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.  5 

j  like  y  in  yet :     ju'stum  (yoo-stum),  ja'-cet. 
s    "    s  "  son:    sa -cei\  so' -ror.  A' si-a. 
t     "    ^  "  time :  ti'-mor^  to'-ius,  ac4i-6. 
V    "    w  ^^  we:     va'-dum,  vl'-cl^  vi'-ti-um.^ 

Note.— Before  s  and  t,  b  has  the  sound  of  p  :  urhs,  suh^-ier,  pronounced  urpa,  8up^- 
ter.^    Ch  has  the  sound  ofk:  cho'-rus  (ko'-rus). 

8.  Syllables. — In  dividing  words  into  syllables, 

1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs :  md'-re, 
per  sua!  -de  ^  men'sae. 

2.  Join  to  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  consonants  which  precede  it — 
one  or  more — as  can  be  conveniently  pronounced  at  the  beginning  of  a 
word  or  syllable:^  pa'-ter,  pa-tres^  ge-ne-r\  do'-mi-nus^  noscit,  si'stis^ 
clau'stra^  men'sa,  bel'-lum,  tem'-plum,  emp'-tus.     But — 

3.  Compound  words  must  be  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if 
the  first  of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant :  ab'-es^  ob-l'-re. 

ENGLISH  METHOD   OF  PRONUNCIATION. ^ 

9.  Vowels. — Vowels  generally  have  their  long  or  short 
English  sounds.  ^ 

10.  LoxG  SoujiTDS. — Vowels  have  their  long  English 
sounds— a  as  in  fate,  e  in  mete,  i  in  pine,  o  in  note,  u  in 
tube,  y  in  type — in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  vowel : 

Se^  siy  ser'-vi,  ser'-vo^  cor'-nu^  mi'-sy. 

2.  In  all  syllables,  before  a  vowel  or  diphthong  : 

De'-uSy  de-o'-7'um,  de'-ae,  di-e'-i^  ni'-hi-lum.^ 

1  There  is  some  uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  sound  of  v.  Corssen  gives  it  at  the 
beginning  of  a  word  the  sound  of  the  English  v,  in  all  other  situations  the  sound  ofw. 

2  On  Assimilation  in  Sound  in  this  and  similar  cases,  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

3  By  some  grammarians  any  combination  of  consonants  which  can  begin  either  a 
Latin  or  a  Greek  word  is  always  joined  to  the  following  vowel,  as  o'-mnis,  i'-pse,  Roby, 
on  the  contrary,  thinks  that  the  Romans  pronounced  with  each  vowel  as  many  of  the  fol- 
lowing consonants  as  could  be  readily  combined  with  it. 

*  Scholars  in  different  countries  generally  pronounce  Latin  substantially  as  they  pro- 
nounce  their  own  languages.  Accordingly  in  England  and  in  this  country  the  Enghsh 
Method  has  in  general  prevailed,  though  of  late  the  Roman  pronunciation  has  gained 
favor  in  many  quarters. 

5  These  sounds  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  are  somewhat  modified  by  the  consonants 
which  accompany  them.  Thus,  before  r,  when  final,  or  followed  by  another  consonant, 
e,  i,  and  u  are  scarcely  distinguishable,  while  a  and  o  are  pronounced  as  in  far,  for. 
Between  qu  and  dr,  or  rt,  a  approaches  the  sound  of  o :  quar'tus,  as  in  quarter. 

«  In  these  rules  no  account  is  taken  of  the  aspirate  h:  hence  the  first  i  in  nihilum  is 
treated  as  a  vowel  before  another  vowel ;  for  the  same  reason,  ch,  ph,  and  th  are  treated 
as  single  mutes;  thus  th  in  Athos  and  Othrys. 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


ENGLISH  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 


? 
/- 


3.  In  penultimate^  syllables  before  a  single  consonant, 
or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  : 

Pa'-ier,  pa'4res,  ho-no'-ris,  A'-tJios,  0'4hrys, 

4.  In  unaccented  syllables,  not  final,  before  a  single  con- 
sonant, or  before  a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  : 

Do-lo'-ris,  cor'-po-ri^  con-su-lia,  a-gric'-o-la, 

1)  A  unaccented  has  the  sound  of  a  final  in  America:  mcn'sa,  a-cu'-tus, 
a-ma'-mics.^ 

2)  I  and  y  unaccented,  in  any  syllable  except  the  first  and  last,  gener- 
ally have  the  short  sound :  noh'-i-lis  (nob'-e-lis),  Am'-y-cus  (Am'-e-eus). 

3)  I  preceded  by  an  accented  a,  e,  o,  or  y,  and  followed  by  another 
vowel,  IS  a  semivowel ^  with  the  sound  of  y  in  yet:  ^-c^a'-za  (A-ka'-ya), 
Pom-pc'-ius  (Pom-pe'-yus),  La-to'-ia  (La-to'-ya),  Har.py'4a  (Har-py'-ya). 

4)  U  has  the  short  sound  before  hi,  and  the  other  vowels  before  gl 
and  tl:  Puh-lic' ^-la,  Ag4a' -o-phon,  At' -las. 

5)  UMn  qu,  and  generally  in  gu  and  su  before  a  vowel,  has  the  sound 
oiw:  qui  {ky^{\  qua  ;  Un'-gua  {lin'-gw a)  Jin'. guis  ;  ma' -de-o  (swa'-de-o) 

6)  Compound  Wor.ns.-When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  is  entire 
and  ends  in  a  consonant,  any  vowel  before  such  consonant  has  generally 
the  short  sound :  a  in  ab'-es,  e  in  red'4t,  i  in  in' -it,  o  in  ob'-it,  prod'-est.  But 
those  final  syllables  which,  as  exceptions,  have  the  long  sound  before  a 
consonant  (11,  1),  retain  that  sound  in  compounds:  post'-quam,  hos'-ce, 
E'-ii-am  and  quo'-ni-am  are  generally  pronounced  as  simple  words'^ 

11.  Short  Sounds.— Vowels  have  their  short  English 
sounds— a  as  in  fat,  e  in  met,  i  in  pm,  o  in  7iot,  u  in  tub, 
y  in  myth— in  the  following  situations  : 

1.  In  final  syllables  ending  in  a  consonant : 

A'-mat,  a'. met,  rex'-it,  sol,  con'-sul,  Te'4hys;  except  pjost,  cs  final,  and  os 
final  in  plural  cases :  res,  di'-es,  Jios,  a'gros. 

2.  In  all  syllables  before  x,  or  any  two  consonants  except 
a  mute  followed  by  a  liquid  (10,  3  and  4)  : 

Rex'4t,  her4um,  rez-e'-runt,  hel-lo'-rum. 


^  Penultimate,  the  last  syllable  but  one. 

a  Some  ^'ive  the  same  sound  to  a  final  in  monosyllables :  da,  qua  ;  while  others  ffive 
it  the  long  sound  according-  to  10, 1. 

^  Sometimes  written  j, 

*  This  is  sometimes  called  the  parasitic  u,  as  having  been  developed  in  many  instances 
by  the  preceding  consonant  and  as  being  dependent  upon  it.    See  Papillou,  p.*  60*  Peile 
p.  383;  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  69, 70,  and  85.  '  »  » 

6  Etiam  is  compounded  oUt  and  Jam;  quoniam,  of  quom  =  qumi,  cum,  and  jam. 


3.  In  all  accented  syllables,  not  penultimate,  before  one 
or  more  consonants : 

Dom'-i-nus,  pat'-ri-bus.     But — 

1)  A,  e,  or  o  before  a  single  consonant  (or  a  mute  and  a  liquid),  fol- 
lowed by  e,  i,  or  y  before  another  vowel,  has  the  long  sound:  a'-ci-es, 
a'-cri-a,  md-re-o,  do'-ce-o. 

2)  U,  in  any  syllable  not  final,  before  a  single  consonant  or  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  except  hi,  has  the  long  sound :  Pu'-ni-cus,  sa4u'-bri4as, 

3)  Compounds ;  see  10,  6). 

12.  Diphthongs. — Diphthongs  are  pronounced  as  fol- 
lows : 


Ae  like  e :  Cae'-sar,  Daed'-a-lus} 
Oelikee;  0e'4a,  Oed'4'pv^} 


Au  as  in  author:    au'-runi, 
Eu  as  in  neuter:    neu'4er. 


1.  Fi  and  oi  are  seldom  diphthongs,  but  when  so  used  they  are  pro- 
nounced as  in  height,  coin :  hei,  proin  ;  see  Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

2.  Hi,  as  a  diphthong  with  the  long  sound  of  i,  occurs  in  cui^  hm^  huic, 

13.  Consonants. — The  consonants  are  pronounced  in 
general  as  in  English.     Thus — 

I.  C  and  G  are  soft  (like  s  and  j)  before  e,  i,  y,  ae,  and  oe,  and  hard  in 
other  situations :  ce'-do  (se'-do),  ci'-vis,  Cy'-rus,  cae'-do,  coe'-pi,  a'-gc  (a'-je), 
a'-gi;  ca -do  (ka' -do),  co'-go,  cum,  Ga'-des.     But 

1.  C  has  the  sound  of  sh — 

1)  Before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and  followed  by  a  vowel: 
so'-ci-us  (so'-she-us) ; 

2)  Before  eu  and  yo  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable :  ca-du-ce-us  (ca- 
du'-she-us),  Sic'-y-on  (Sish'-y-on). 

2.  ^A  is  hard  like  ifc  /  cho'-rus  iXo-r\x&),  Chi'Os(J^\-o^), 

3.  G  has  the  soft  sound  before  g  soft :  ag'-ger. 

II.  S,  T,  and  X  are  generally  pronounced  as  in  the  English  words  «ow, 
time,  expect :  sa'-cer,  ti'-mor,  rex'-i  (rek'-si).    But — 

1.  S,  T,  and  Xare  aspirated  before  i  preceded  by  an  accented  syllable  and 
followed  by  a  vowel— 5  and  t  taking  the  sound  of  sh,  and  x  that  of  ksk  :  Al'- 
si-um  (Al'-she-um),  ar'4i-um  (ar'-she-um),  anx'-i-us  (ank'-she-us).     But 

1)  T  loses  the  aspirate— (1)  after  s,  t,  or  x:  Os'-ti-a,  At'-U-us,  mioi'-H-o;  (2)  in  old 
infinitives  in  ier:  Jlec'-ti-er;  (3)  generally  in  proper  names  in  Hon  {tyon):  Phi-lin'' 
ti'On,  Am-phic'-ty-on. 


»  The  diphthong  has  the  long  sound  in  Cae'-sar  and  Oe'-ta,  according  to  10,  3,  but 
the  short  sound  in  Daed'-a-lus  (Ded'-a-lus)  and  Oed'-i-pus  (Ed'-i-pus),  according  to 
11,  8,  as  e  would  be  thus  pronounced  in  the  same  situations. 


«#^-:';am'.;       -^tiai 


/ 


\ 


8  CONTINENTAL  METHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION. 

2.  S  is  pronounced  like  z~-^ 

1)  At  the  end  of  a  word,  after  e,  ae,  au,  5,  m,  n,  r :  spes,  praea,  laua,  urbs,  hi'-ems, 
mons^  para  ; 

2)  In  a  few  words  after  the  analogy  of  the  corresponding  English  words :  Cae'-ear^ 
Caesar;  cau'-sa,  cause;  mu'-sa,  muse;  mi'-ser,  miser,  miserable,  etc. 

3.  X  at  the  beginning  of  a  wordkas  the  sound  of  z :  Xan'-thus, 

14.  Syllables.— In  dividing  words  into  syllables — 

^       1.  Make  as  many  syllables  as  there  are  vowels  and  diphthongs :  mo' -re, 
f  per-sua'-de\  men'-sae, 

2.  Distribute  the  consonants  so  as  to  give  the  proper  sound  to  each 
/    vowel  i.nd  dip^hong,  as  determined  by  previous  rules  (10-12):  pa'4er, 
pa -ires,  a-gro' -rum,,  au-di'-vi ;  gen'-e-ri,  dom'4-nus  ;  bel'-lum,  pat'-ri-bus  / 
emp'-tus,  tern' -plum i^x' 4,  anx'-i-us;  post'-qiiam,  hos'-cc,^ 


i 


I 


CONTINENTAL  IVIETHOD  OF  PRONUNCIATION.» 

15.    For  the  Continental   Method,   as  adopted  in  this 
country,  take — 

1.  The  Roman  pronunciation  of  the  vowels  and  diphthongs ;  see  5  and  6. 

2.  The  English  pronunciation  of  the  consonaiits ;  ^  see  13. 

3.  The  Roman  division  of  words  into  syllables ;  see  8. 

\ 
QUANTITY.  X 

_^'    16.  Syllables  are  in  quantity  or  length  either  long,  short, 
or  common.'* 

.J.  Loi^G. — A  syllable  is  long  in  quantity — 

1.  If  it  contains  a  diphthong  or  a  long  vowel :  Jiaec,  res.^ 


1  Observe  that  compound  words  are  separated  into  their  component  parts,  if  the  first 
of  these  parts  ends  in  a  consonant  (10,  4,  6),  as  posV-quam  ;  that  in  other  cases,  after  a 
vowel  with  a  Ion-  sound,  consonants  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  the  first 
four  examples,  pa'-ter,  etc.,  and  that,  after  a  vowel  with  a  short  sound,  a  single  conso- 
nant  is  joined  to  such  vowel,  as  in  gen'-e-ri  and  dom' -i-nua ;  that  two  consonants  are 
separated,  as  in  bel'-lum,  etc. ;  that  of  three  or  four  consonants,  the  last,  or,  if  a  mute  and 
a  liquid,  the  last  two,  are  joined  to  the  following  syllable,  as  in  emp'-ius,  ^tc,  but  that 
the  double  consonant  x  is  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel,  as  in  rex'-i,  anx'-i-us. 

a  Strictly  speaking,  there  is  no  Continental  Method,  as  every  nation  on  the  Continent 
of  Europe  has  its  own  method. 

3  Though  the  pronunciation  of  the  consonants  varies  somewhat  in  diflferent  insti 
tutions. 

*  Common-i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short.    For  rules  of  quantity  see 
Prosody.    Two  or  three  leading  facts  are  here  given  for  the  convenience  of  the  learner 
6  See  note  3  below. 


y 


.^ 


/ 


ACCENTUATION  </ 


9 


/' 


2.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  /,  x,  or  z,  or  any  two 
consonants,    except   a    mute    and    a   liquid  :  *    dux,    rex, 

II.  Short. — A  syllable  is  short,  if  its  vowel  is  followed 
by  another  vowel,  by  a  diphthong,  or  by  the  aspirate  h: 
di'-es,  vi^-ae,  ni'-ML 

III.  CoMMOi^. — A  syllable  is  common,  if  its  vowel,  natu- 
/  rally  short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  :  a'-grl. 

Note  1,— Vowels  are  also  in  quantity  either  long,  short,  or  common;  but 
the  quantity  of  the  vowel  does  not  always  coincide  with  the  quantity  of  the 
syllable. 3 

Note  2. — Vowels  are  long  before  7is  and  n/,  generally  also  before  g7i  and 
J:  coii-sul^  in-fe-llx^  reg'-nvmi^  hu'-jus.^ 

Note  3.— The  signs  ",  "^  are  used  to  mark  the  quantity  of  vowels,  the  first 
denoting  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long^  the  second  that  it  is 
common^  i.  e.,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short:  a-ma-bO,  All  vowels 
not  marked  are  to  be  treated  as  short.^ 

Note  4.— Diphthongs  are  always  long.  I 

J 

1 

ACCENTUATION.  •  \.| 

17.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  always  accented  on  the 
^first :  men'-sa. 


A 


Note.— Monosyllables  are  also  accented. 


V 


18.  Words  of  more  than  tAVO  syllables  are  accented  on 


1  That  is,  in  the  order  here  given,  with  the  mute  before  the  liquid ;  if  the  liquid  pre- 
cedes, the  syllable  is  long, 

«  Observe  that  the  vowel  in  such  syllables  may  be  either  long  or  short.  Thus  it  is 
long  in  rex^  but  short  in  dux  and  sunt. 

8  Thus  in  long  syllables  the  vowels  may  be  either  long  or  short,  as  in  r^x,  dux,  sunt ; 
see  foot-note  4,  p.  4.    But  in  short  syllables  the  vowels  are  also  short. 

«  See  Schmitz,  pp.  3-33,  also  p.  56;  Kuhner,  I.,  p.  13T;  also  H.  A.  J.  Munro^s  pam- 
phlet on  the  Pronunciation  of  Latin,  pp.  24-26. 

6  See  p.  4,  foot-note  4.    In  many  works  short  vowels  are  marked  with  the  sign  " : 

r^gls. 

«  With  the  ancient  Romans  accent  probably  related  not  io  force  or  stress  of  voice,  as 
with  us,  but  to  musical  pitch.  It  was  also  distinguished  as  acute  or  circumflex.  Thus 
all  monosyllables  and  all  words  in  which  the  vowel  of  the  penult  is  long  and  the  final 
syllable  short  were  said  to  have  the  circumflex  accent,  while  all  other  accented  words 
were  said  to  have  the  acute.  The  distinction  is.of  no  practical  value  in  pronunciation. 
On  the  general  subject  of  Accent,  see  Ellis,  pp.  8-10;  Roby,  I.,  pp.  98-100 ;  Kiihner,  I., 
p.  148 ;  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  806-80S. 


/. 


If  '' 


10 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


the  Penult,'  if  that  is  long  in  quantity/  otherwise  on  the 
Antepenult:'  ho-no'-ris,  cdn'-sti-Us. 

1.  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  syllable  retain  the  accent  of  the 
full  form.     Thus — 

1)  Genitives  in  i  for  ii  and  vocatives  in  l  for  ie:  huge'^ni  for  in^qe'-niri 
Mer-cu'-rl  for  Mer-cu' -ri-e.  ' 

2)  Certain  words  which  have  lost  a  final  e:  iUic'  for  iUl'-c^,  iliac'  for 
lUa  ^e,  is4ic'  for  is-Ci'-ce,  etc. ;   ho-nan'  for  ho-na'jne,  Ulan'  for  illa'-^te 
tan-ton'  for  tan4d'.ne,  au-dln'  for  au-du'-ne,  e-duc'  for  g-cf^'-c^.s 

Note  1. -Prepositions  standing  before  their  cases  are  treated  as  ProclUic8~\  e  are 
BO  closely  united  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  word  as  to  have  no  accent  of  their 
own  :  8ubj7i'.di-ce,  in-ter  re'-ges. 

Note  2.-PenuIts  common  in  quantity  take  the  accent  when  used  as  long. 

2.  Compounds  are  accented  like  simple  words ;  but— 

1)  The  enclitics  que,  ve,  ne,  ce,  met,  etc.,  throw  back  their  accents  upon 
the  last  syllable  of  the  word  to  which  they  are  appended:  ho'-mi-ne'Jue^ 
men-sa-que,^  e-go'-met,  ^    ' 

2)  /be^^  compounded  with  other  words  than  prepositions,  retains  its  own 
accent:  ca-le-fa-czt^ 

3    A  secondary  or  subordinate  accent  is  placed  on  the  second  or  third 
syl  able  before  the  primary  accent-on  the  second,  if  that  is  the  first  syllable 
of  the  word  or  is  long  in  quantity,  otherwise  on  the  tliird :  mo'-nu4'^nt 
mo  -nu-e-rd  -mus»  in-stau'-rd-ve'-runt.  ' 

Note  -A  few  loDg  words  admit  two  secondary  or  su/or.finate  accents :  ho'-nd-rif. 

PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

19.  Latin  words  have  undergone  important  changes  in  accord- 
ance with  phonetic  laws.' 


#^cent 


>  The  penult  l3  the  last  syllable  but  one ;  the  antepenult,  the  last  but  two 
^        Thus  the  quantity  of  the  si,llable,  not  of  the  vo,oel,  determines  the  place  of  the  ac- 

Zlnr^^et^^iT'  "  *''  P*°""'  "^•'""^^  *'"'*  ^'"^"'^ '»  '-^.  ^'ougr.  it.  L" 

"According  to  Priscian,  certain  contracted  words,  as  m,-<r<M'  for  ves-trd'-ti»  or  with 
the  crcumflex  accent,  Tes-trds  for  ve^-trd-Hs,  Sam-nU  for  Sam-nUU  I^r^Z7T 
accent  of  the  full  form ;  but  it  is  not  deemed  "advisable  to  mX"  ex^^ons  in  Hchoo 
grammar.    See  Priscian,  IV.,  22.  ^  ^' 

<  ^y  the  English  method,  hom'-i-me'-q^ie,  caV -e-fa' -cii 

ra:,t:::L::^    ^^^°  ^'^  ^^--^^  ^^^^  '--^  '^^  ^-  --^  ^^^^re  an  enclitic: 

BiluJ,    '^'  ^'"'^'^''^  "''''''^'  mon'.u.e'.runt,  mon'-u-e-ra'-mu.^  hon'.^-Hf.i.cen.tis'- 

T 1  ^"'^^^^''^'^'J^^  t^«  «°^i^°t  languages  of  the  Indo-European  family  to  which  the 
Latin,  Greek,  and  English  alike  belong,  the  general  direction  of  phonetic  chanJhaab^^^^^ 
from  the  extremes  of  the  alphabetic  scale-i.  e.,  from  the  open  a  at  one  e.^^^^^^^^^ 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


11 


I.   Changes  in  Vowels. 

20.  Vowels  are  often  lengthened : 

1.  In  compensation  for  the  dropping  of  consonants : 

Servoms,^  servos,  slaves ;  regems^  reges,  kings ;  posnS,  pond,  I  place ;  magi- 
or,^  unaior  or  major,  greater. 

2.  In  the  inflection  of  verbs : 

Legb,  Ugi,^  I  read,  I  have  read  ;  e(JI<>,  edi,  I  eat,  I  have  eaten ;  fugw,  fugi, 
I  flee,  I  have  fled. 

Note  1. — Sometimes  vowels  are  changed,  as  well  as  lengthened :  ago^  egl,  I  drive, 
I  have  driven ;  /ctctd, /eci^  I  make,  I  have  made;  see  J}55,  II. 

Note  2. — Different  forms  from  the  same  stem  or  root  sometimes  show  a  variable 
vowel:  ducis^  ducis^  of  a  leader,  you  lead;  regis,^  regis,  you  rule,  of  a  king;  iegd,  toga, 
I  cover,  a  covering,  the  toga.3    See  also  23, 1. 

2 1 .  Vowels  are  often  shortened :  ^ 

1.  Regularly  in  final  syllables  before  m  and  t: 

Erdm,  eram,^  I  was ;  monedm,  moneam,  let  me  advise ;  audidm,  audiam, 
let  me  hear;  erdt,  erat,  he  was;  amdt,  amat,  he  loves;  moriet,  monet,  he 
advises ;  sit,  sit,  may  he  be ;  audit,  audit,  he  hears. 

2.  Often  in  other  final  syllables.     Thus — 

1)  Final  a®  is  shortened  (1)  in  the  Plural  of  Neuter  nouns  and  adjec- 
tives,^ and  (2)  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  of  Feminine^ 
nouns  and  adjectives  of  the  first  declension : 

from  the  close  mutes  at  the  other— toward  the  middle  of  the  scale,  where  the  vowels  and 
consonants  meet ;  see  3.  Accordingly,  in  Latin  words  we  shall  not  unfrequently  find  e 
or  o,  or  even  i  or  w,  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  a ;  and  we  shall  sometimes  find  a 
Uquid  or  Vk  fricative  occupying  the  place  of  a  primitive  mute.  See  Whitney,  p.  68; 
Papillon,  p.  49;  Peile,  pp.  199  and  312. 

^  O  short  in  servoms  is  lengthened  in  servos  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  m,  and 
a  short  in  magior  is  lengthened  in  mdior,  major,  to  compensate  for  the  loss  of  g. 

2  The  short  vowel  of  the  present  tense  is  here  lengthened  in  the  perfect ;  see  266,  II. 

3  In  ducis,  dUcis,  and  in  regis,  regis,  the  variation  is  simply  in  the  qttanUty  of  the 
vowel,  but  in  tegb,  toga,  the  vowel  itself  is  changed,  appearing  as  e  in  tego  and  o  in  toga. 
Sometimes  a  ringle  vowel  appears  in  one  form  while  a  diphthong  appears  in  another : 
fides,  faith,  foedus,  treaty. 

*  See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  486  seq. 

5  In  all  these  examples,  the  form  with  the  long  vowel  in  the  final  syllable  is  the  earlier 
form,  and,  in  general,  is  found  only  in  inscriptions  and  in  the  early  poets,  as  Plautus, 
Ennius,  etc. ;  while  the  form  with  the  short  vowel  belongs  to  the  classical  period. 

•  Corssen  regards  numerals  in  -gintd,  as  trl-gintd,  quadrd-gintd,  etc.,  as  Plural 
Neuters,  and  d  as  the  original  ending.  He  recognizes  also  the  Neuter  Plural  of  the  pro- 
noun with  a  in  ant-ed,  post-ed,  inter-ed,  praeter-ed,  ante-M-c,  praeter-hd-c.  See 
Corssen,  II.,  p.  455.    For  a  different  explanation,  see  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 

^  In  masculine  nouns  of  the  first  declension  a  final  was  short  in  the  Nominative  even 
in  early  Latin :  scrlba,  a  scribe.  But  most  stems  in  a  weakened  a  to  o,  and  thus  passed 
into  the  second  declension. 


12  PHONETIC  CHANGES, 

Templd,  templa.,  temples;  genera,. genem.,\iin<\)?>\  gravid^  gravia^  heavy; 
musd^  musa^  muse ;  hond.^  bona^  good. 

2)  In  ar,  or,  and  al  final,  a  and  6  are  regularly  shortened : 

Begdr,  regar^  let  me  be  ruled;  audidr,  audlar,  let  me  be  heard;  audior, 
audior,  I  am  heard ;  hondr^  hono)\  honor ;  orator,  orator^  orator ;  moneor, 
moneor,  I  am  advised;  animdle,  animdl  (27),  animal^  an  animal. 

8)  Final  e,  i,  and  o  are  sometimes  shortened : 

Berie,  bene,^  well ;  nube,  nube,  with  a  cloud ;  nisi,  nisi,  unless ;  ibl^  ibl, 
there ;  led,  led,  a  lion ;  ego,  ego,  I. 

22.  Vowels  are  often  weakened,  i.  e.,  are  often  changed  to 
weaker  vowels.  * 

The  order  of  the  vowels,  from  the  strongest  to  the  weakest,  is  as  follows : 

a»  o,  «,  e,  i» 

Thus  a  is  changed  to  o  .  .  .  u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i. 

o    to    u  .  .  .  e  .  .  .  i. 

u    to    e  .  .  .  i. 

e    to    i. 

NoTE.—The  change  from  a  through  oiou  is  usually  arrested  at  u,  while  a 
is  often  changed  directly  through  e  to  i  without  passing  through  o  or  u.^ 

1.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  in  consequence  of  the  lengthening  of 
words  by  inflection,  composition,  etc. : 

Carmen,'^  carmejiis,  carminis,  a  song,  of  a  song ;  fructus,  frudubus,  fruc- 
tibus.,  fruit,  with  fruits;  facio^  coii-facio^  con-ficio.,  I  make,  I  accomplish; 
/actus,  In-f actus,  in-fectus,  made,  not  made;  dam?i3,  con-damnO,  condem- 
nb,  I  doom,  I  condemn ;  teneb,  con-teneb,  co?i-tineb,  I  hold,  I  contain ;  cadb, 
ca-cad-i,  ce-cid-l,  I  fall,  I  have  fallen ;  tuba,  tuba-cen,  tubi-cen,  a  flute,  a  flute- 
player. 

1  See  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  1-436.  The  process  by  which  vowels  are  shortened  (31),  weak- 
ened, or  dropped  (27),  and  by  which  diphthongs  are  weakened  to  single  vowels,  and  con- 
sonants assimilated,  or  otherwise  chanpred,  is  generally  known  as  Phonetic  Decay.  It 
may  result  from  indistinct  articulation,  or  from  an  effort  to  secure  ease  of  utterance.  For 
a  difficult  sound,  or  combination  of  sounds,  it  substitutes  one  which  requires  less  physical 
effort. 

2  But  w,  e,  and  i  differ  so  slightly  in  strength  that  they  appear  at  times  to  be  simply 
interchanged. 

3  That  is,  the  open  a  is  changed  either  to  the  close  u  through  the  medial  o,  as  seen 
on  the  right  side  of  the  following  vowel-triangle,  or  to  the  close  i  through  the  medial  e, 
as  seen  on  the  left  side : 

Open  'vowel a 

Medial  vowels %  o 

Close  'vowels      .......      i  u 

*  The  syllable  men  was  originally  man.  The  original  a  has  been  weakened  to  e  in 
carmen  and  to  i  in  carmifi-is. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


13 


i 

ill 


2.  Vowels  are  often  weakened  without  any  such  special  cause :  * 
Puerom,  puerum,  a  boy ;  fllios,  filing,  son ;  sont,  sunt,  they  are ;  regont, 

regunt,  they  rule;  dtcumus,  decimus,  tenth;  nfidxumus^  mdximus,  greatest; 

legitumus,  legitimus,  lawful ;  aestumb,  aestimb,  I  estimate. 

23.  Two  successive  vowels  are  sometimes  contracted : 

1.  Into  a  diphthong:  mensd-i,  mensai,  mensae,  tables;  see  4. 

2.  More  frequently  into  a  long  vowel.  In  this  case  the  second  vowel 
generally  disappears.     Thus  e  and  i  often  disappear  after  a,  c,  and  o  : 

Amdverat,  amaerat,  amdraty  he  had  loved ;  amdvisse^  amaisse,  amdsse,  to 
have  loved ;  fleverunt,  flferunt,  flerunt^  they  have  wept ;  novisse,  noisse^  nosse, 
to  know ;  servol^  servo,  for  the  slave. 

Note. — The  proper  diphthongs  of  early  Latin  were  changed  or  weak- 
ened as  follows : 

ai '  generally  into  ae ;  sometimes  into  e  or  i. 
oi   generally  into  oe ;  sometimes  into  u  or  i. 
ei    generally  into  i ;  sometimes  unchanged. 
au  sometimes  into  6  or  u  ;  generally  unchanged. 
eu  generally  into  u ;  rarely  unchanged. 
ou  regularly  into  vL. 

Aidilis,  aedllis^  an  aedile ;  Bomai,  B&tnae,  at  Rome ;  amaimus,  am^ius, 
let  us  love;  in-caedit,  in-ddit,  he  cuts  into;  mensais,  menMs,  with  tables; 
foidus,  foedus.^  treaty ;  coira,  coera,  cura,  care ;  loidos,  loedus^  ludus,^  play ; 
puerois,  pueris,  for  the  boys ;  ceivis,  dvis,  citizen ;  lautus,  lot  us, ^  elegant ; 
eX'Claudb,  ex-cludb,  I  shut  out;  doucit,  dUcit,  he  leads;  jous,  jus,^  right. 

24.  Vowels  are  sometimes  changed  through  the  influence  of  the 
consonants  which  follow  them.     Thus — 

1  That  is,  by  the  ordinary  process  of  phonetic  decay,  a  process  which  in  many  words 
has  changed  an  original  a  of  the  parent  language  to  e  or  o  in  Latin,  and  in  some  words 
to  i  or  u.  Corssen  cites  upward  of  four  hundred  Latin  words  in  which  he  supposes  a 
primitive  a  to  have  been  weakened  to  o,  e,  or  i.  Even  the  long  vowels  are  sometimes 
weakened.  Compare  the  following  forms,  in  which  the  Sanskrit  retains  the  vowel  of  the 
parent  language. 


Sanskrit. 

Latin. 

English. 

Sanskrit. 

Latin. 

English. 

sapta, 

septem, 

seven. 

padas, 

pedes. 

feet. 

nava, 

novem, 

nine. 

navas, 

novus, 

new. 

daca, 

decem, 

ten. 

vak. 

vox, 

voice. 

mata, 

mater, 

inother. 

vacas. 

vdcis, 

of  a  voice. 

sadas, 

sedes, 

seat. 

viicam. 

vocem, 

voice. 

2  The  forms  ai,  oi,  ei,  au,  eu,  and  ou  are  all  found  in  early  Latin,  as  in  inscriptions ; 
but  in  the  classical  period  ai  had  been  already  changed  to  ae,  oi  to  oe,  and  ou  to  U. 

3  Loidos,  the  earliest  form,  became  loedus  by  weakening  oi  to  oe,  and  o  to  w  (JJ^,  2); 
then  loedus  became  ludtis  by  weakening  oe  to  U. 

*  Lautus,  the  earlier,  is  also  the  more  approved  form. 

*  As  ew  and  ou  were  both  weakened  to  U,  it  is  not  easy  to  give  trustworthy  examples 
of  the  weakening  of  eu  to  it. 


14 


PHONETIC  CHANGES, 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


15 


1.  E  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  r,  a;,  or  two  or  more  consonants : 

Cinisis,  dneris  i  (31),  of  ashes ;  Judix^  judex,^  judge ;  mllitis^  miUts^  rmles;* 
of  a  soldier,  a  soldier. 

Note. — E  final  is  also  a  favorite  vowel :  servo^  serve^  0  slave ;  monh'ls^ 
morieri^  momre^^  you  are  advised  ;  mari^  mare,  sea. 

2.  I  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  n,  5,  and  t  : 

Homonis,  hominis,  of  a  man ;  pulver  or  pulvis,*  dust ;  salutes,  salutis,  of 
safety ;  verotds,  Veritas,  truth  ;  genetor,  genitor,  father. 

3.  U  is  the  favorite  vowel  before  I  and  m,  especially  when  followed  by 
another  consonant : 

Epistola,  epistula,  letter;  volt,  vult,  he  ^\^q^\  facilitds,  faciltds  (2*7), 
/acultds,  feculty ;  monementum,  monumentum,  monument ;  colomna,  colum- 
na,  column. 

25.  Assimilation. — A  vowel  is  often  assimilated  by  a  follow- 
ing vowel.     Thus — 

1.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  is  often  partially »  assimilated.  /  is  thus 
changed  to  e  before  a,  o,  or  u  :  ia,  ea,  this ;  id,  ed,  I  go ;  iunt,  eunt,  they  go ; 
iadem,  eadem,  same ;  divus,  dius  (36,  4),  deus,  god.  \ 

Note.— When  the  first  vowel  is  thus  adapted  to  the  second,  the  assimilation  is  said  to 
be  regressive^  but  sometimes  the  second  vowel  is  adapted  to  the  first,  and  then  the  as- 
similation is  progressive.  Thus  the  ending  id  {21,  2),  instead  of  becoming  ea  as  above, 
may  become  i§:  luxurid  (perhaps  for  lUxurida),  luxuries,  luxury;  materia,  mdteries,'^ 
material. 

2.  A  vowel  may  be  completely  assimilated  by  the  vowel  of  the  following 
syllable  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  consonant.     Thus — 

1)  ^  is  assimilated  to  i:  mehf,  mild,  for  me ;  tebl,  tibi,  for  you;  sebl,  sibi, 
for  himself;  nehil,  nihil,  nothing. 

2)  U  is  assimilated  to  i :  consulium,  consilium,  counsel ;  exsulium,  ex- 
silium,  exile. 

3)  Other  vowels  are  sometimes  assimilated;  ^  to  ^ ;  bone,  bene,  bene  (21,  2), 
well ;  etou:  tegurium,  tugurium,  hut ;  etoo:  secors,  sOcors,  stupid. 

26.  Dissimilation.— A  vowel  is  often  changed  by  dissimilation, 


■^7\ 


1  Cinisis,  from  cinis,  becomes  cineris  by  changing  s  to  r  between  two  vowels,  mak- 
ing djiiris  (31, 1),  and  by  then  changing  iioe  before  )^ 

2  Observe  that  the  vowel  which  appears  as  i  in  mllik^  before  t,  takes  the  form  of  e 
in  mllets  before  ts^  as  also  in  miles  for  ml  lets.  ^ 

3  Moneris  becomes  monlre  by  dropping  s  (36,  6),  and^fchanging  final  i  to  e. 

*  Observe  that  the  form  in  r  has  e,  while  that  in  s  has  i\ 

»  That  is,  it  is  made  like  it,  adapted  to  it,  but  does  n^  b§come  identical  with  It. 
Thus  i  before  a  may  be  changed  to  «,  but  not  to  a.  ^^^^\ 

•  Thus  from  nouns  in  id  of  the  first  declension  were  developed  netfrly  all  nouns  in  iU 
of  the  fifth.  ^ 


i.  e.,  by  being  made  unlike  the  follow^ing  vowel :  ii,  el,  these  ;  n«, 
el8,  for  these.  ^ 

Note.— The  combination  ii  is  sometimes  avoided  by  the  use  of  e  in  place  of  the  sec- 
ond i :  pietds  instead  of  piitds^  piety ;  societds^  society ;  varietds^  variety. 

27.  Vowels  are  often  dropped  in  the  middle  or  at  the  end  of 
words,  sometimes  even  at  the  beginning  : 

Tempulum,  temjplwm,  temple  ;  vinculum,  vinclum,  band ;  benigenus,  benlg- 
nus,^  benignant ;  ama^,  amo,  I  love ;  temploa,  templa,  temples ;  animate,  ard- 
mal,^  an  animal ;  $l-ne,  sin,  if  not;  dice,  die,  say ;  esum,  sum,  I  am ;  esumus, 
sumus,  we  are. 

Note. — After  a  word  ending  in  a  vowel  or  in  m,  est,  he  is,  often  drops  the  initial  e, 
and  becomes  attached  to  the  preceding  word:  res  optuma  est,  res  optumast^  the  thing 
is  best ;  optumum  est,  optumv/mst,  it  is  best ;  doml  est,  demist,  he  is  at  home.  In  the 
same  way  €«,  thou  art,  is  sometimes  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  when  that  word 
ends  in  a  vowel :  homo  es,  homds,  you  are  a  man.  For  the  loss  of  a  final  s  from  the  pre- 
ceding word,  see  36,  5, 1),  note. 

^  II.  Interchange  of  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

28.  The  vowel  i  and  the  consonant  i — also  written  j — are  some- 
times interchanged  : 

Altior,*  higher;  magior,  mdior  or  major,  greater;  ipsius,  of  himself;  eius 
or  ejus,  of  him. 

29.  The  vowel  u  and  the  consonant  u — generally  VvTitten  v — are 
often  interchanged  : 

Col-ui,^  I  have  cultivated ;  vocd-vl,^  I  have  called ;  ndvita,  ndvta,  nauta, 
sailor;  volvtus,  volutus,  rolled;  lavtus,  lautus  or  Ibtus,^  washed;  movtus, 
moutus,  motus,^  moved. 

Note.— The  Liquids  and  Nasals  are  sometimes  so  fully  vocalized  as  to  develop  vowels 

^  The  combination  uu  was  also  avoided  in  early  Latin  either  by  retaining  the  second 
vowel  in  the  form  of  o,  instead  of  weakening  it  to  u,  or  by  changing  qu  to  c ;  equos, 
afterward  equus,  a  horse ;  quom,  or  cum,  afterward,  though  not  properly  in  classical 
times,  quum,  when.  Observe  that  when  o  becomes  u,  a  preceding  qu  becomes  c ;  quom, 
cum  ;  loqudtHs.  locutus,  having  spoken.    See  Brambach,  p.  5. 

2  See  16,  note  2. 

3  Observe  that  after  e  is  dropped,  a  is  shortened  in  the  final  syllable  :  animal,  ani- 
mal; see  21,  2. 

*  In  the  comparative  ending  ior,  as  seen  in  altior,  i  is  a  vowel,  but  in  the  same  end- 
ing, as  seen  in  m,uior,  major,  it  is  a  consonant,  and  in  this  grammar  is  generally  written.;. 
/  thus  becomes  J  between  two  vowels;  see  3,  4,  foot-note.  So  in  the  genitive  ending 
iv^,  i  is  sometimes  a  vowel  and  sometimes  a  consonant. 

^  The  ending  which  appears  as  .ul  in  col-ul  becomes  vl  in  vocd-vl.  U  becomes  v 
between  two  vowels. 

^  If  a  vowel  precedes  the  v  thus  changed  to  u,  a  contraction  takes  place — a-u  becom- 
ing au,  rarely  o,  o-u  becoming  b,  and  u-u  becoming  U :  lavlus,  lautus,  lotus,  washed ; 
movtus,  moutus,  motus,  moved;  juvtiis, ,juutus,  jUius,  assisted. 


i 


16 


PHONETIC   CHANGES. 


before  them.*    Thus  agr  (for  agrus)  becomes  ager,"^  field ;  dcr  (for  dcris\  dcer^  sharp; 
regm^  regem,  king ;  sm  (for  esm),  sum,  1  am ;  snt  (for  esnt\  sunt^  they  are. 

III.  Changes  in  Consonants. 

30.  A  Guttural — c,  g,^  q  (qu),  or  h* — before  s  generally  unites 
with  it  and  forms  x : 

Ducs^  dux^  leader;  pdcs^  pdx^  peace;  regs^  recs^^  rex^  king;  Ugs,  Ucs^  lex, 
law ;  coqusi^  cocsi,^  coxl,  I  have  cooked ;  trahsl^  tracsl^  traxi,  I  have  drawn. 

Note  1.— Ffor  gv  in  mvd,  I  live,  is  treated  as  a  guttural :  vivsl,  vlcsl,  vlxl,  I  have 
lived. 

Note  2.--For  the  Dropping  of  the  Guttural  before  «,  see  36,  8. 

31.  S  is  often  changed  to  r: 

1.  Generally  so  when  it  stands  between  two  vowels :  floses^  flores,  flowers ; 
jusa,  jura^  rights ;  mensdsum,  menmrum,  of  tables ;  agrosum^  agrorum,  of 
fields;  esam,  eram,  I  was;  esdmus,  erdmus^  we  were;  fuesunt^  fu'erunt,  they 
have  hQ,QTi\  fuesit^fuerit,  he  will  have  been;  amdset,  amdret^  he  would  love; 
regisis^  regerls,^  you  are  ruled. 

2.  Often  at  the  end  of  words :  hands,  Jionor,  honor ;  rbhos,  robus,  rbhur, 
strength;  puems, puerus^ puer^  boy;  regituse^  regiture,  regitur^  he  is  ruled.» 

8.  Sometimes  before  m,  n ,  or  t;  /  casineti,  carmen ,  song;  vetesnus^  veternus^  old ; 
hodiesnus,  hodiernus,  of  this  day ;  Minesva,  Minerva,  the  goddess  Minerva. 

32.  3D  is  sometimes  changed  to  1 : 

Dacrima^  lacrima,  tear ;  dingua,  lingua,  language ;  odere,  oUre,  to  emit  an 
odor. 

Note  1.— Z>  final  sometimes  stands  in  the  place  of  an  original  t:  id,^  this;  isiud, 
that ;  illud,  that ;  quod^  quid,  what,  which  ? 

Note  2. — Bv  at  the  beginning  of  a  word  (1)  sometimes  becomes  h :  dt'eUum,  bSllum, 
war;  dvis,  bis,  twice;  (2)  sometimes  drops  d  :  dvigintl,  vlgintl,  twenty;  and  (3)  some- 
times drops  v:  dvis,  dis,  inseparable  particle  (308),  in  two,  asunder. 

33.  Partial  Assimilation. — A  consonant  is  often  partially  ••* 
assimilated  by  a  following  consonant.     Thus — 

1  This  occurs  between  consonants  and  at  the  end  of  words  after  consonants. 

2  The  ending  us  or  is  is  dropped  (3a  5,  2),  note),  and  r  final  vocahzed  to  er ;  m 
becomes  em  in  regem,  and  um  in  siun ;  n  becomes  un  in  sunt. 

8  Sometimes  gu:  exstingusl,  exstincst,  exstinxl,  I  have  extinguished. 

*  For  an  original  gh. 

*  The  process  seems  to  be  that  the  guttural  before  s  first  becomes  c,  and  then  unites 
with  s  and  forms  x :  thus  in  coqusi,  qu  becomes  c. 

®  Observe  that  i  before  s  becomes  e  before  r ;  see  24. 

■^  Here  s  was  probably  changed  to  r  before  the  final  vowel  was  dropped. 

8  Literally,  he  rules  himself. 

»  For  it,  istut,  etc.  I)  stands  for  t  also  in  the  old  Ablative  in  d :  praeddd  for  prae- 
ddt,  afterward  praedd,  with  booty ;  magiatrdtud  for  magistrdtut,  magistrdtu,  from 
the  magistracy. 

10  That  is,  it  is  adapted  or  accommodated  to  it,  but  does  not  become  the  same  letter. 


t« 


PHONETIC  CHANGES, 


17 


1.  Before  the  surd  s  or  t,  a  sonant  b  or  g  is  generally  changed  to  its 
corresponding  surd,  p  ^  or  c : 

Scribsi,  ecrlpsl,  I  have  written ;  scrlUus,  scrlptus,  written ;  regsl,  recsl,  rexl 
(30),  I  have  ruled ;  regtus,  rectus,  ruled.     See  also  35,  3,  note. 

Note. — Qu,  h  for  gh,  and  v  for  gv  are  also  changed  to  c  before  s  and  t :  coqvMt^ 
cocsit,  coxit,  he  has  cooked ;  coqutus,  cactus^  cooked ;  trahsit,^  tracsit,^  tra/xit,  he  has 
drawn ;  trahtus,  tractus,  drawn ;  'vlvsit,*  vlcsit,  vlxit,  he  has  lived ;  mvturus,  mcturus, 
about  to  live. 

2.  Before  a  sonant  1,  m,  n,  or  r,  a  surd  c,  p,  or  t  is  generally  changed 
to  its  corresponding  sonant,  g,  b,  or  d : 

Neclego,  neglego^  I  neglect ;  sec-mentum^  eegmentum,  a  cutting ;  populicus,^ 
pvplicus,  publicus,^  public ;  quatra^  quadra.^  a  square  ;  quatrdgintd^  quadrd- 
gintd,  forty. 

3.  Before  a  Labial  p  or  b,  n  is  generally  changed  to  m :  ^ 

Inperd,  impero,  I  command;  inperdtor,  imperdtor^  commander;  inhellis, 
imhellisy  unwarlike. 

Note. — Before  7i,  a  Labial  j9  or  &  is  changed  to  m  in  a  few  words :  sopnus,  somnus, 
sleep  ;  Sabnium,  Samnium,  the  country  of  the  Samnites. 

4.  M  is  changed  to  n — 

1)  Regularly  before  a  Dental  Mute : 

Eumdem,  eundem,  the  same  ;  ebrumdem,  eorundem,  of  the  same ;  quemdam^ 
quendam,  a  certain  one;  tamtus,  tantus,  so  great;  quamtus,  quantum,  how 
great^  as  great. 

2)  Often  before  a  Guttural  Mute : 

Humrce,  hunc,  this;  num-ce,  nunc^  now;  prlm-ceps,  prlnceps,  first ;  nuin^ 
quant  or  nunquam,^  never ;  quamquam  or  quanquam,  although. 

1  But  b  is  generally  retained  (1)  before  s  in  nouns  in  bs:  urbs,  not'urps,  city,  and  in 
abs,  from ;  and  (2)  before  s  and  t  in  ob,  on  account  of,  and  sub,  under,  in  compounds  and 
derivatives:  ob-servdns,  observant;  ob-tusus,  obtuse;  stib-scrlbS,  I  subscribe;  sub-ter, 
under.  In  these  cases,  however,  b  takes  the  sound  of  p,  so  that  assimilation  takes  place 
in  pronunciation,  though  not  in  writing.  It  is  probable  also  that  in  some  other  conso- 
nants assimilation  was  observed  even  when  omitted  in  writing:  inprlmls  and  im- 
prlmw,  both  pronounced  imprimis.    See  Roby,  I.,  p.  Ivii. ;  Munro,  p.  10. 

2  Qu,  also  written  qv,  is  not  a  syllable ;  nor  is  t*  or  t?  in  this  combination  either  a 
vowel  or  a  consonant,  but  simply  a  parasitic  sound  developed  by  q,  which  is  never  found 
without  it. 

3  For  traghsit;  h  is  dropped,  and  g  assimilated  to  c. 

*  For  gvlgvsit ;  the  first  g  and  the  second  v  are  dropped :  vigsit,  vlcsit,  vlxit, 

*  From  populus,  the  people. 

*  Pis  changed  to  b,  and  o  is  weakened  to  u;  see  22. 
"^  From  quattuor,  four. 

*  That  is,  the  dental  n  becomes  the  labial  m. 

*  "  Or  "  placed  between  two  forms  denotes  that  both  are  in  good  use :  numquam  or 
nunquam.    In  other  cases  the  last  is  the  only  approved  form :  nunc,  prlnceps. 


18 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


Note  1.— Before  the  ending -^we,  m  is  generally  retained:  i  qulcumque^  whoever; 
quemque^  every  one ;  namque^  for  indeed. 

Note  ^.—Quom-dam  or  qtwrn-jam  becomes  quoniam^  since. 

34.  A  consonant  is  often  completely  assimilated  by  a  following 
consonant.     Thus — 

1.  T  or  d  is  often  assimilated  before  n  or  s  : 

Petna^  penna^  feather ;  mercedndriua^  mercenndrim^  mercenary  ;  concutsit^ 
concussit^  he  has  shaken. 

Note.— Jf  before  s  is  sometimes  assimilated,  and  sometimes  develops  2^ : 
prembit^  pressit,  he  has  pressed  ;  sumsit,  mmpsit,  he  has  taken. 

2.  D,  n,  or  r  is  often  assimilated  before  1 : 

Sedula^  sedla  (37),  sella^  seat;  unulus^  unlm  (37),  ullus^  any;  puerula^ 
puerla^  puella^  girl. 

3.  B,  g,  or  n  is  often  assimilated  before  m : 

Sub-moved  or  mm-moveb,  I  remove ;  supmm^  summits^  highest ;  flagma^ 
flamma^  flame ;  inmotus  or  immotus^  unmoved. 

Note.— For  Assimilation  in  Prepositions  in  Composition^  see  344,  5. 

35.  Dissimilation. — The  meeting  of  consonants  too  closely  re- 
lated and  the  recurrence  of  the  same  consonant  in  successive  syllables 
are  sometimes  avoided  by  changing  one  of  the  consonants.     Thus 

1.  Caeluleus  becomes  caeruleus^  azure ;  medl-dieSy  meridieSy  midday. 

2.  Certain  suffixes  of  derivation  have  two  forms,  one  with  r  to  be  used 
after  I,  and  one  with  I  to  be  used  after  r :  ^  aris^  alls ;  burum^  brum^  bu- 
lum  ;  3  curum^  crum,  culum : 

Popularis,^  popular ;  regdlis^*  kingly ;  delubrum,  shrine  ;  trihulum^  thresh- 
ing-sledge ;  sepulcrum^  sepulchre  ;  perlculum^  peril. 

3.  A  Dental  Mute — d  or  t — may  unite  with  a  following  t  in  two  ways  : 

1)  Dt  or  tt  may  become  st :  ^ 

Edt^  est,  he  eats ;  rodtrum,  rostrum,  a  beak  ;  equettris,  equestris,  equestrian. 

2)  Dt  or  tt  may  become  ss  or  s :  ^ 

Fodtus,  fossus,  dug ;  vidtus,  vlsus,  seen  ;  plaudtus,  plausus,  praised ;  met- 
tus,  messus,  reaped  ;  verttus,  versus,  turned. 

1  But  probably  with  the  sound  of  n ;  see  p.  17,  foot-note  1. 

2  This  distinction  is,  however,  not  always  observed.  The  form  with  /,  probably 
weakened  from  that  with  r,  became  the  favorite  form,  and  was  generally  used  if  I  did 
not  precede. 

3  From  burum  are  formed  (1)  brum  by  dropping  «,  and  (2)  bulum  by  weakening  r 
into  I.    In  the  same  way  cruni  and  culum  are  formed  from  curum, 

*  In  populdris,  aria  is  used  because  I  precedes ;  but  in  regdlis^  dlis  is  used  because 
r  precedes.    When  neither  I  nor  r  precedes,  the  weakened  form  dlis  is  used. 

«  Here  doTt\%  changed  to  s  by  Dissimilation. 

«  In  regard  to  the  exact  process  by  which  dt  or  tt  becomes  ss  or  »,  there  is  a  diversity 
of  opinion  among  philologians.    See  Papillon,  p.  76;  Roby,  p.  62;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  208. 


PHONETIC  CHANGES, 


19 


Note.— Z(7^  may  become  Is;  i  rgt,  rs;  i  lit.  Is;  »  and  rrt,  rs:^  mulgtus,  mulsus^ 
milked ;  spargtus,  sparsus,  scattered ;  /allium,  falsus,  false ;  verrtus,  versus,  swept. 

36.  Omission. — Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped.     Thus — 

1.  Some  words  which  originally  began  with  two  consonants  have  dropped 
the  first : 

Cld?nentum,^  Idmentum,  lamentation;  gndtus,  ndtus,  horn;  gnotus,^  notus, 
known;  dvlgintl,  vigintl,  twenty;  sfalUt,fallit,  he  deceives. 

2.  A  Dental  Mute — d  or  t — before  s  is  generally  dropped  :  ^ 

Lapids,  lapis,  stone;  aetdts,  aetds,  age;  mllets,  miles,  soldier;  claudsi, 
clausl,  1  have  closed. 

Note. — D  is  occasionally  dropped  before  other  consonants :  hod-ce,  hoc^,  hoc,  this  ; 
quod-circd^  quocircd,^  for  which  reason  :  ad-gnoscO,  dgnoscO,  1  recognize. 

3.  A  Guttural  Mute — c,  g,  or  q  (qu) — is  generally  dropped — 

1)  Between  a  Liquid  and  s  : 

Mulcsit,  mulsit,  he  has  appeased;  fiilgsit,fulsit,  it  has  lightened. 

2)  Between  a  Liquid  and  t : 

Fulctus,  fultus,  propped  ;  sarctus,  sarins,  repaired. 

3)  Between  a  Liquid  and  m : 

Fulgmen,fulmen,  lightning ;  torqumentum,  tormentum,  engine  for  hurling 
missiles. 

Note  1. — A  Guttural  Mute  is  occasionally  dropped  in  other  situations.'^ 
Thus— 

1.  C  before  morn:  lUcmen,  lumen,  light;  lucna,  tuna,  moon. 

2.  C  between  n  and  d  ox  t:  quinctus,  quintics,  fifth;  qulncdeci7n,  qulndecim,  fif- 
teen. 

3.  G  before  morv:^  exagmen,  exdmen  (20, 1),  a  swarm ;  jugmenfum,  jumentum, 
beast  of  burden  ;  magvult,  m&cult,  he  prefers  ;  bregvis,  brevis,  short. 

Note  2.—X  is  sometimes  dropped :  sexdecim,  sedecim  (20, 1),  sixteen ;  sexnl,  sent, 
six  each  ;  texula,  texla,  tela,  a  web  ;  axula,  axla,  dla,  wing. 

Note  3. — N,^  r,  and  a  are  sometimes  dropped  :  in-gnotus,  Ignbtus,  unknown ;  for- 
mbnsus,  formosus,  beautiful;  quotims,^^  quoties,  how  often;  deciens,  decies,^^  ten 

1  7'  is  changed  to  s,  and  g  is  dropped. 

^  T  is  changed  to  s,  and  one  I  is  dropped  in  lit,  and  one  r  in  rrt. 

3  Compare  cldmO,  I  cry  out. 

*  Seen  in  l-gnotus,  Ignbtus,  unknown. 

fi  Probably  first  assimilated  and  then  dropped  :  lapids,  lapiss,  lapis.  But  the  dental 
is  sometimes  assimilated  and  retained  :  cedsl,  cZssl,  I  have  yielded :  concufait,  concus- 
sit,  he  has  shaken. 

«  O  lengthened  in  compensation ;  see  20, 1. 

'^  Sextius  becomes  Sestius,  a  proper  name;  sexcentl,  sescentl,  six  hundred;  and 
mTixtus,  mlstus,  mixed,  by  dropping-  the  mute  contained  in  the  double  consonant  x. 

8  G  has  also  been  dropped  in  did  for  agio,  I  say ;  major  for  magior,  greater,  etc. 

®  In  numerals  nt  is  sometimes  dropped :  du^entnl,  ducenl,  two  hundred  each ;  vl- 
gent-simus  or  vicent-simus,  vlgesimus  or  vlc^simvs,  twentieth. 

^^  So  in  all  numeral  adverbs  in  i^ns,  ies.    The  approved  ending  in  most  numeral 


20 


PHONETIC  CHANGES. 


times;  mulier-hris,  muUebris,vromBxi\y ;  p^orsa,  prosa,  prose;  isdem,  Idem^  same; 
jus-dex,  judex^  judge;  audUne,  aiullne,  audin,  do  you  hear?  vlane,  vine,  Din,  do 
you  wish  ? 

4.  A  Semivowel— j  or  v,  also  written  i  or  u — is  often  dropped  : 

Bi-jugae^  hiugae^  hlgae,  chariot  with  two  horses ;  quadri-jiigae^  quadrigae^ 
chariot  with  four  horses ;  con-junctus^  c6-junctus^  cunctus,  the  whole  ;  ahjidb 
or  abicib,^  I  throw  away ;  dlvitior^  diitlor^  dltlor,  richer ;  nevoid^  neolo^  nolo,  I 
am  mi  willing  ;  amdverat,  amaerat,  amdrat,  he  had  loved.  ^ 

Note.— Separate  words  are  sometimes  united  after  the  loss  of  v  :  at  vls^  »118,  s'ls,  if 
you  wish ;  al  vuliia,  siultis,  si'dtis,  if  you  wish. 

5.  Final  consonants  are  often  dropped.     Thus — 

1)  Final  s  is  often  dropped  -J 

Moneris,  moriere  (24, 1,  note),  you  are  advised;  illus,  illu,  ille,  that;  istus, 
istu,  iste,  that  of  yours ;  ij)sus,  ipm,  ipse,  self,  he  ;  parricldas,^  parridda,  par- 
ricide; magis  or  mage,  more  ;  slvls,  slve,  whether,  lit.,  if  you  wish. 

Note.— In  the  early  poets  es,  thou  art,  and  est,  he  is,  after  having  dropped  the  initial 
e,  sometimes  become  attached  to  the  preceding  word,  which  has  lost  its  final  « ;  vetitus 
es  'veritu's,  you  feared ;  tempua  est,  tempuat,  it  is  time ;  virtus  eat,  viriuat,  it  is  vii-tue. 
See  37,  note. 

2)  A  final  d  or  t  is  often  dropped  : 

Cord,  cor,  heart ;  praeddd,  praedd,^  with  booty  ;  intrdd,  intra,  within ;  fa- 
ciluiried,^  facilliirie,  most  easily ;  v'enerunt,''  veneru,  vemre,  they  have  come ; 
rexerunt,  rexere,  they  have  ruled. 

Note.— Sometimes  both  a  vowel  and  a  consonant  disappear  at  the  end  of  a  word : 
pueru8,puer,  boy  (61,  2,  4));  deinde  or  dein,  thereupon;  nihilum  or  nihil,  nothing. 

3)  A  final  n^  is  generally  dropped  in  the  Nominative  Singular  from 
stems  in  on: 

Leon,  IS,  lion ;  praedon,  praed^,  robber ;  Tiomon,  homo,  man. 

adverbs  is  iea,  but  in  those  formed  from  indefinite  numerals,  as  tot,  quot,  it  is  iena : 
totiena,  quotiens. 

1  This  is  the  approved  form  in  verbs  compounded  ofjaci'i  and  monosyllabic  preposi- 
tions ;  but  abicio  is  pronounced  as  if  written  ahjicio  or  ab-iicio,  1.  e.,  i  =Ji,  pronounced 
ye  by  the  Roman  method.    The  syllable  ab  thus  remains  long. 

a  Several  adverbial  forms  were  produced  by  the  loss  of  v  with  the  attendant  changes : 
revorsua,  reoraus,  ruraua,  back ;  aubavormm,  auavoraum,  auoraicm,  auraum,  from  be- 

l«)w,  on  high. 

8  In  early  inscriptions  proper  names  in  oa,  afterward  iia,  occur  without  the  5  as  often 
as  with  it :  Roacios,  Roscio ;  Gablnioa,  Gablnio. 

*  This  form  actually  occurs  in  early  Latin. 

0  The  Ablative  singular  ended  anciently  in  d,  originally  t  Many  prepositions  and 
adverbs  in  a  and  e  are  ablatives  in  origin,  and  accordingly  ended  in  d. 

•  Written  with  one  /,  afterward  with  two. 

T  Here  final  t  was  first  dropped,  then  n,  having  become  final,  also  disappeared,  and  at 
last  final  u  was  weakened  to  e ;  see  34, 1,  note. 
®  In  early  inscriptions  final  m  is  often  dropped. 


^ETYMOLOGY, 


21 


PART  SECOND. 
ETYMOLOGY. 

37.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  inflection, 
and  derivation  of  words. 

\    38.  The  Parts  of  Speech  are — Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
I  nouns y    Verbs,  A 


Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 


hiterjections. 


\  ^  I 


OHAPTEE    I. 

NOUNS. 

*jr       39.  A  Noun  ^^if^sgWSetimti-ve-^s  a  name, 
^  place,  or  thing  :    Cicero,  Cicero  ;    Roma,  Rome ;    domus, 
house. 

\X  1.  A  Proper  Noun  is  a  proper  name,  as  of  a  person  or  place  :  Cicerh  ; 

Roma. 

^  2.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name\common  to  all  the  members  of  a  class 
of  objects :  vir,  man  ;  eqmcs,  horse.     Common  nouns  include— 

1)  Collective   Nouns,   designating    a   collection  of    objects  :   populus, 

people ;  exercitus,  army. 

2)  Abstract  Nouns,  designating  properties  or  qualities :  virtus,  virtue ; 

justitia,  justice. 

3)  Material  Nouns,   designating    materials    as    such  :    aurum,    gold ; 

hgnum,  wood ;  aqua,  water. 

Vj-     40.  Nouns  have  Gender,  Number,  Person,  and  Case. 

I.  Gender.  ^ 
^     41.  There  are  i\iXQQ  ^mdiQr^^— Masculine,  Feminine,  and 
i  Neuter. 

NotE.— In  some  nouns  gender  is  determined  by  signification  ;  in  others,  by  endings. 


>In  English,  Gender  denotes  sex.  Accordingly,  masculine  nouns  denote  males; 
feminine  novLm,  females ;  and  neuter  nouns,  objects  which  are  neither  male  nor  female. 
In  Latin,  however,  this  natural  distinction  of  gender  te  applied  only  to  the  names  of 
males  and  females ;  while,  in  all  other  nouns,  gender  depends  upon  an  artificial  dis- 
tinction  according  to  grammatical  rules. 


PERSON  AND  NUMBER,     CASES, 

42.  General  Rules  for  Gender. 
I.  Masculines.  ,. 

1.  Names  of  Males:  Cicero;  vir,  man  ;  rex,  king. 

2.  Names  of  Rivers,  Winds,  and  Months:  Ehenus, 
Rhine  ;  Notus,  south  wind ;  Mdrtius,  March. 

II.  Feminines.    ^ 

1.  Names  of  Females :  nmlier,  woman  ;  leaena,  lioness. 

2.  Names  of  Countries,  Towns,  Inlands,  and  Trees  : 
Graecia,  Greece  ;  Roma,  Rome  ;  Delos,  Delos  ;  pirus,  pear- 
tree.  .     ' 

^«"OTE.— Indeclinable  nouns, i  infinitives,  and  all  clauses  used  as  nouns  are  neuter: 
nlpha,  the  letter  a.^    See  also  533. 

43.  Remarks  on  Gender.  ^     . 

1.  Exceptions.— The  endings  3  of  nouns  sometimes  give  them  a  gender 
at  variance  with  these  rules.  Thus,  some  names  of  rivers^  countries^  towns^ 
islands^  trees,  and  animals  take  the  gender  of  their  endings ;  see '53,  1. 

2.  Masculine  or  Feminine.— A  few  personal  appellatives  applicable  to 
both  sexes  and  a  few  names  of  animals  are  sometimes  masculine  and  some- 
times feminine,  but  when  used  without  distinct  reference  to  sex  they  are 
generally  masculine :  civis,  citizen  (man  or  woman) ;  bos,  ox,  cow. 

3.  Epicene  Nouns  apply  only  to  the  inferior  animals.  They  are  used 
for  both  sexes,  but  have  only  one  gender,  and  that  is  usually  determined 
by  their  endings  :  dnser,  goose,  masculine ;  aquila,  eagle,  feminine. 

II.  Person  and  Numbeii. 

44.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  three  persons  and 

two  numbers.     The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  the 

\/    second,  the  person  spoken  to  ;  the  third,  the  person  spoken 

of.     The  singular  number -denotes  one,  the  plural  more 

than  one. 

III.  Cases.* 

iy^5*  The  Latin  has  six  eases  : 


^  Except  names  of  persons. 

2  See  128,1. 

3  Gender  as  determined  by  the  endings  of  nouns  will  be  noticed  in  connection  with 
the  several  declensions. 

*  The  ca^e  of  a  noun  shows  the  relation  which  that  noun  sustains* to  other  words ;  as, 
John's  book.  Here  the  possesaive  case  (John's)  shows  that  John  sustains  to  the  book 
the  relation  of  possessor. 


\ 


\ 


\ 


NAMES. 

Nominative, 

Genitive, 

Dative, 

Accusative, 

Vocative, 

Ablative, 


DECLENSION, 

ENGLISH   EQUIVALENTS. 

Nominative. 

Possessive,  or  Objective  with  of. 

Objective  with  to  or  for. 

Objective. 

Nominative  Independent. 

Objective  with/rom,  with,  ly,  in. 


23 


Oblique  Cases. — The   Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Ablative 
are  called  the  Oblique  Cases. 

2.  Locative. — The  Latin  has  also  a  few  remnants  of  another  case, 
called  the  Locatiye,  denoting  the  place  in  which, 

DECLENSION. 


46.  Stem  and  Suffixes. — The  process  by  which  the 
several  cases  of  a  word  are  formed  is  called  Declension.  It 
consists  in  the  addition  of  certain  suffixes  to  one  common 
base  called  the  stem. 

1.  MEANiNG.—Accordingly,  each  case-form  contains  two  distinct  ele- 
ments—the stcm^^  which  gives  the  general  meaning  of  the  word,  and  the 
case-sicffix,  which  shows  the  relation  of  that  meaning  to  some  other  word. 
Thus,  in  reg-is,  of  a  king,  the  general  idea,  king,  is  denoted  by  the  stem 
rig  ;  the  relation  of,  by  the  suffix  is. 

2.  Cases  alike.— But  certain  cases  are  not  distinguished  in  form. 

1)  The  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative  in  Neuters  are  alike,  and 
in  the  plural  end  in  a, 

2)  The  Nominative  and  Vocative  are  alike,  except  in  the  singular  of 
nouns  in  us  of  the  second  declension  (51).^ 

3)  Thfe  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  are  alike. 

3.  ChXac'^eristic— The  last  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  Stem- 
Charactwristic,  or  the  Stem-Ending. 

47.  ^IVE  Decleis-sioks. — In  Latin  there  are  five  de- 
clensions, distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem-char- 
acteristics  or  by  the  endings  of  the  Genitive  Singular,  as 
follows : 


1  Moreover,  in  many  words  the  stem  itself  is  derived  from  a  more  primitive  form 
called  a  Root  For  the  distinction  between  roots  and  stems,  and  for  tho  manner  in 
which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

^  And  in  some  nomis  of  Greek  origin. 


o 


M 


24 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


Dec.    I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 


CHARACTEBISTICS. 

a 


GENITIVE  ENDINGS. 

ae 
o  I 

i  or  a  consonant       is 


u 
e 


us 
ei 


Note  1.— The  five  declensions  are  only  five  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflec- 
tion, as  the  case-suffixes  are  nearly  identical  in  all  nouns. 

Note  2.— But  these  case-suffixes  appear  distinct  and  unchanged  only  in  nouns  with 
consonant-stems,  while  in  all  others  they  are  seen  only  in  combination  with  the  charac- 
teristic, 1.  e.,  with  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem. 

Note  8. — The  ending  produced  by  the  union  of  the  case-suffix  with  the  charac- 
teristic vowel  may  for  convenience  be  called  a  Case-Ending. 

FIRST    DECLENSION:    A    NOUNS. 
48,  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  end  in 


«X  UilU.  t? — -J  viivvi(/f/ivt:> 

Nouns  in  a  are  declined 

J       Cit9    U/ilVX    %0i9           IIVlA/Ofy%A 

.  as  follows  : 

/vi/tviy 

SINGULAR. 

f^'      Example. 

Meaning. 

Case-Ending. 

^  Nom. 

mensO/, 

a  table ^^ 

a3 

Gen. 

mensae, 

of  a  table. 

ae 

\    Dat. 

mSnsae, 

to,  for  a  table, 

ae 

3 

Acc. 

mensam, 

a  table, 

■  am 

[      Voc. 

mensSl, 

0  table, 

a 

'     Abl. 

mensS/, 

from,  witJi,  by  a  iable,^ 

PLURAL. 

ft 

Nom. 

mensae, 

tables, 

ae 

Gen. 

mensa^rum, 

of  tables. 

^rum 

Dat. 

mensis, 

to,  for  tables, 

Is 

Acc. 

mensfts, 

tables. 

fts 

Voc. 

mensae, 

0  tables, 

ae 

Abl. 

mensis. 

from,  with,  by  tables.^ 

Is 

1  That  is,  nouns  of  this  declension  in  a  and  e  are  feminine,  and  those  in  as  and  is  are 

masculine. 

2  The  Nom.  mensa  may  be  translated  a  table^  iable^  or  the  table;  see  48,  6. 

3  These  case-endings  will  serve  as  a  practical  guide  to  the  learner  in  distinguishing 
the  diflferent  cases.  The  two  elements  which  originally  composed  them  have  undergone 
various  changes,  and  in  certain  cases  the  one  or  the  other  has  nearly  or  quite  disappeared. 
Thus  the  suffix  has  disappeared  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular,  and  appears 
only  as  e  in  four  other  case-forms,  while  the  characteristic  a  has  disappeared  in  the  ending 
U,  contracted  from  a-is,  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural;  see  23,  2,  note. 

*  Still  other  prepositions,  as  in,  on,  at,  are  sometimes  used  In  translating  the  Ablative. 


Vl   ' 


FIRST  DECLENSION. 


25 


.  1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  first  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  a. 

2.  In  the  Paradigm,  observe  that  the  stem  is  mensa,  and  that  the  sev- 
eral cases  are  distinguished  from  each  other  by  their  case-endings. 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  mensa  decline : 

Ala,  wing ;  aqua,  water ;  causa,  cause  ;  fortuna,  fortune. 

4.  Locative. — Names  of  towns  and  a  very  few  other  words  have  a 
Locative  Singular*  in  ae,  denoting  the  jplace  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are 
declined  in  the  singular  ^  number  as  follows : 


Nom. 

Roma, 

Rome, 

militia, 

tear. 

Gen. 

Romae, 

of  Rome, 

militiae. 

of  war. 

Dat. 

Romae, 

for  Rome,^ 

mllitiae. 

for  war. 

Acc. 

Romam, 

,           Rome, 

mllitiam 

,           war, 

Voc. 

Roma, 

0  Rome, 

militia, 

0  war, 

Abl. 

Roma, 

from  Rome,^ 

militia, 

from  war. 

Loc. 

Romae, 

at  Rome. 

mllitiae, 

in  war. 

6.  Exceptions  in  Gender. — 1.  A  few  nouns  in  a  are  masculine  by 
signification :  agricola,  husbandman  ;  see  42, 1. — 2.  Hadria,  Adriatic  Sea, 
is  masculine ;  sometimes  also  damma,  deer,  and  talpa,  mole. 

6.  Article. — The  Latin  has  no  article:  corona,  crown,  a  crown,  the 
crown  ;  dla,  wing,  a  wing,  the  wing. 

49,  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur :  ^ 

1.  as  in  the  Genitive  of  familia,  in  ^SSJnpositiStL  {Ei^  j22fi2!,  ^aZS^ 
fllius,  and  fllia :  paterfamilias,  father  of  a  family. 

2.  al,  an  old  form  for  the  Genitive  ending  ae,  in  the  poets :  ^  aulai,  af- 
terward aulae,  of  a  hall. 

8.  um  ^  in  the  Genitive  Plural :  Dardanidum  for  Dardaniddrum,  of 
the  descendants  of  Dardanus. 

4.  abus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  especially  in  dea,  goddess, 

and  fllia,  daughter,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  deus,  god, 

and/i/iws,  son:  dedbus  for  dels,  to  goddesses. 

JrQ;^  Al^ — — 

*  In  the  Plural  of  all  nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative :  Athinls, 
at  Athens.  Whether,  however,  the  form  AthenU  is  in  origin  a  Locative,  an  Ablative,  or 
neither,  is  a  disputed  question.  See  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  484  seq. ;  Schleicher,  pp.  586,  587; 
Penka,  p.  194;  Delbruck,  p.  27;  Merguet,  pp.  116,  117;  Wordsworth,  p.  59.  In  most 
nouns  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  in  both  numbers. 

2  The  Plural  when  used  is  like  the  Plural  of  mensa. 

3  For  the  other  prepositions  which  may  be  used  in  translating  the  Dative  and  the 
Ablative,  see  45.    Militia.,  war,  warfare,  military  service. 

<  To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin  a  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  dd  in 
the  Abl.  Sing. ;  see  21,  2, 1),  and  36,  5,  2). 

*  Also  in  inscriptions  as  the  ending  of  the  Genitive,  Dative,  and  Locative. 

*  Contracted  from  a-v/m  like  the  Greek  a-&ii/,  u>v. 

2 


\ 


26 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


Note.— Nouns  in  ia  sometimes  have  U  for  iU  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural : 
gratia  for  grdtiU^  from  gratia^  favor,  kindness. 

50.  Gkeek  Nouks. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  e,  Ss, 
and  es  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Epitome,  epitome.         Aeneas,  Aeneas. 


Pyrites,  pyrites. 


SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

epitomS 

Aeneas 

pyrites 

Gen. 

epitomes 

Aeneae 

pyrltae 

Dat. 

epitomae 

Aeneae 

pyritae 

Ace. 

epitomCn 

Aeneam,  &ii 

pyrit^n 

Voc. 

epitom© 

Aenea 

pyrit©,  a 

Abl. 

epitom© 

• 

Aenea 

PLURAL. 

pyritC,  a 

Nom, 

epitomae 

pyritae 

Gen. 

epitomarum 

• 

pyritarum 

Dat. 

epitomis 

pyritis 

Ace. 

epitomes 

pyritas 

Voc. 

epitomae 

pyritae 

Abl. 

epitomis 

pyritis 

Note  1. — In  the  Plural  and  in  the  Dative  Singular,  Greek  nouns  are  declined  like 
mensa. 

Note  2.— In  nouns  in  e  and  e«,  the  stem-ending  a  is  changed  to  e  in  certain  cases. 

Note  3. — Many  Greek  nouns  assume  the  Latin  ending  a,  and  are  declined  like  mensa. 
Many  in  e  have  also  a  form  in  a :  epitome,  epitoma,  epitome. 


SECOND  DECLENSION:   O  NOUNS. 
61.  Nouns  of  the  second  declension  end  in 
er,  ir,  us,  and  os ' — masculine  ;  xun,  and  on — neuter. 
Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  um  are  declined  as  follows  : 
Servus,'  slave.      Puer,  boy.      Ager,  field.     Templum,  temple. 


Nom.  servus' 
Gen,    servl 
Dai.     servO 
Ace.     servam 
Voc,    serve 
Abl.     servO 


SINGULAR. 

puer  ager 

puerl  agri 

puerO  agrO 

puerum  agrum 

puer  ager 

puero  agri^ 


templam 

templl 

templO 

templam 

templum 

templO 


^  Sometimes  da. 

2  Sometimes  written  servos  ;  see  5/5, 1. 

'  In  the  Koman  and  in  the  Continental  pronunciation,  quantity  furnishes  a  safe  guide 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


27 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  servl 

puerl 

agrI 

templa 

Gen.  servOrum 

puerOrum 

agrorum 

templorum 

Dat.    servis 

puerls 

agrls 

templls 

Ace.    servOs 

pueros 

agrOs 

templa 

Voc.   servl 

puerl 

agrI 

templa 

Abl,    servis 

puerls 

agrls 

templls 

1.  Stem. — In  nouns  of  the  second  declension,  the  stem  ends  in  o, 

2.  In  the  Paradigms,  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  servo,  puero,  agro,  and  templo. 

2)  That  the  characteristic  o  becomes  u  in  the  endings  us  and  um,  and  e 
in  serve,^  that  it  disappears  by  contraction  in  the  endings  o,a  I,  and  Is  (for  o-a, 
0-4,  and  o-is),^  and  is  dropped  in  the  forms  puer  and  ager. 

3)  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  o  (47,  N.  2),  are  as 
follows : 


SINGUL. 

iR. 

PLURAL. 

Maso. 

Netit. 

Maso. 

Nkut. 

Nom.   us  * 

um 

Nom, 

I 

a 

Gen.    I 

I 

Gen. 

orum 

orum 

Dat.     6 

6 

Dat. 

Is 

IB 

Ace.     um 

um 

Ace. 

03 

a 

Voc.     e  * 

um 

Voc. 

1 

a 

Abl.     0 

0 

Abl. 

is 

18 

4)  That  puer  and  ager  differ  in  declension  from  servus  in  dropping  the 
endings  us  and  e  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative :  Nom.  puer  for  puerus, 
Voc.  puer  for  puere. 

5)  That  e  in  ager  is  developed  by  thQ  final  n* 

6)  That  templum,  as  a  neuter  noun,  has  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and 
Vocative  alike,  ending  in  the  plural  in  a  /  see  46,  2, 1). 

3.  Examples  for  Practice. — Like  servus:  dominus,  master.  Like 
puer:  gener,  son-in-law.  Like  ager:  magister,  master.  Like  templum: 
bellum,  war. 


to  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  ;  see  tjg  Qi  the  English  method,  on  the  contrary,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  vowels  is  entirely  disregarded,  except  as  it  affects  the  accent  of  the  word. 
Thus,  a  in  ager  is  short  in  quantity,  but  long  in  sound  (10,  8),  while  I  in  servis,  puerls, 
aQris,  and  templls  is  long  in  quantity  but  short  In  sound  (11, 1).  Accordingly,  in  this 
method,  the  sounds  of  the  vowels  must  be  determined  by  the  rules  given  in  9,  10, 
arid  11.  Moreover,  the  learner  must  not  forget  that  when  the  quantity  of  the  vowel  is 
known,  the  quantity  of  the  syllable,  as  used  in  poetry,  is  readily  determined  by  article  16. 

1  See  32  and  24, 1,  note. 

2  Shortened  from  a;  see  JJl,  2, 1), 
»See23,  note,  and27. 

*  The  endings  of  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  are  wanting  in  nouns  In  er, 

*  See  29,  note. 


28 


SECOND  DECLENSION.  ^ 


/^Sil 


4.  Nouns  in  er  and  ir. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  o^er,  but 
the  following  in  er  and  ir  are  declined  \iiae  puer :  ^  ■ 

1)  Nouns  in  ir :  mr^  mrl^  man. 

2)  Compounds  infer  and  ger  :  armiger^  armigeri^  armor-bearer ;  slgnifer^ 
slgniferi^  standard-bearer. 

8)  Adulter^  adulterer  ;  Celtiber^'^  Celtiberian ;  gener^  son-in-law  ;  Iher.y- 
Spaniard;  Llber^  Bacchus;  Uherl^  children;  Muldher^^  Vulcan;  presbyter^ 
elder ;  «ocer,  father-in-law ;  vesper^  evening. 

5.  Nouns  in  ius  generally  contract  ii  in  the  Genitive  Singular  and  ie 
in  the  Vocative  Singular  into  i  without  change  of  accent:  Claudi  for 
Claudii,  of  Claudius,  fill  for  flliiy  of  a  son ;  Mercu'rx  for  Mercu'rie^  Mer- 
cury, fill  for  fllie,  son.2  In  the  Genitive  Singular  of  nouns  in  ium  the 
same  contraction  takes  place :  inge'ni  for  inge'nil^  of  talent;  see  18,  1. 

6.  Deus  is  thus  declined :  Sing,  dcus^  del^  deo,  deum,  deus,  deo :  Plur.  N. 
and  V.  dei^  diiy  dl;^  G.  deorum,  deum  ;  D.  and  A.  dels,  dils,  dls;^  Ace.  deos, 

7.  Neuters  in  us. — The  three  neuter  nouns  in  us,'^ pelagus,  sea,  vims,  poi- 
son, and  vulgus,  the  common  people,  are  declined  in  the  singular  as  follows* 

Nom.^  Acc,^  Voc.   pelagus  virus  vulgus* 

Gen,  pelagi  viri  vulgi 

Dat.^  Abl,  pelago  viro  vulgo 

T^o-m.— Pelagus  is  a  Greek  noun  (64,  N".  2),  and  in  general  is  used  only  in  the  singu- 
lar, though  pelage  occurs  as  an  Ace.  Plur.  Virua  and  t'ulgus  are  used  only  in  the 
singular.     Vulgua  has  a  masculine  Ace,  vulgum,  in  addition  to  the  neuter  form  vulgtia. 

8.  Locative. — Names  of  towns  and  a  few  other  words  have  a  Locative 
Singular  6  in  i,  denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2),  and  are  declined  in  the 
singular  ^  number  as  follows : 

Norn.  Ephesws,  Ephesus^ 

Gen,  EphesI,  of  Ephems, 

Dat,  EphesO,      for  EphesuSy 

Ace.  Ephesiiin,        Ephestis, 

Voc.  Ephese,  0  Ephems, 

Abl.  Epheso,  from  Ephems, 

Loc.  EphesI,  at  Ephesus. 


bellam, 

war^ 

belli, 

of  war  J 

bello. 

for  war. 

belliim. 

wary 

bellum. 

0  war. 

bell5,  from,  by  war^ 

belli, 

in  war. 

1  Celtiher  and  Iber  have  e  long  in  the  Gen.,  and  Mulciher  sometimes  drops  e. 

2  Nouns  in  eius  sometimes  contract  eie  in  the  Voc.  Sing,  into  ei;  Pompel  or  Pom- 
pei^  Pompey. 

3  Dl  and  dU  are  the  approved  forms,  but  del,  dil  and  dels,  dils  also  occur. 

4  Originally  s-atema  which  by  the  loss  of  «  in  the  oblique  cases  have  become  o-stems; 
see  63,  I.,  1,  foot-note. 

*  Also  written  valgus. 

«  In  the  Plural  the  Locative  meaning  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative :  Gabils,  at  Gabii ; 
see  48,  4,  foot-note. 

^  The  Plural,  when  used,  is  like  the  Plural  of  sermis,  puer,  etc. 


SECOND  DECLENSION. 


29 


52.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur :  * 

1.  OS  and  om,  old  endings  for  tis  and  um,  sometimes  used  after  v  and 
u:^  servos  for  servus,  servom  for  servum  ;  moriuos  for  mortuus,  dead. 

2.  us  for  e  in  the  Vocative  of  deu^,  god ;  rare  in  other  words. 

3.  um  in  the  Genitive  Plural,  especially  common  in  a  few  words  de- 
noting money,  weight,  and  measure :  talentum  for  talentorum,  of  talents ; 
also  in  a  few  other  words :  deitm  for  deorum ;  llberum  for  llberorum ; 
Arglvum  for  Arglvorum, 

Note.— The  ending  ilm  occurs  also  in  the  Genitive  Plural  of  many  other  words, 
especially  in  poetry. 

53.  Gender. — Nouns  in  er,  ir,  us,  and  os  are  masculine,  those  in  um 
and  on  are  neuter ;  except — 

1.  Tlie  Feniinines: — (1)  See  43,  II.,  but  observe  that  many  names  of 
countriesy  townsy  islands,  and  trees  follow  the  gender  of  their  endings.  (2) 
Most  names  of  gems  and  ships  are  feminine :  also  alviiSy  belly ;  carbasus,  sail ; 
coluSy  distaff;  humuSy  ground;  vannuSy  sieve.     (3)  A  few  Greek  feminines. 

2.  The  Neuters :—pelagicSy  sea;  vlruSy  poison;  vulgus^  common  people. 
For  declension,  see  61,  7.  y-^ 

54.  Greek  Nouns. — Nouns  of  this  declension  in  os,  os, 
and  on  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  declined  in  the  singu- 
lar as  follows  : 

Delos,  F.,^  Delos.  Androgeos,  Androgeos.     Ilion,  Ilium. 


Nom. 

Delos 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Gen. 

Dell 

Androgeo,  I 

Ilil 

Dat. 

Delo' 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

Ace. 

Delon 

Androgeon,  o     ' 

Ilion 

Voc. 

Dele 

Androgeos 

Ilion 

Abl. 

DelO 

Androgeo 

Ilio 

Note  1.— The  Plural  of  nouns  in  os  and  on  is  generally  regular,  but  certain  Greek 
endings  occur,  as  oe  in  the  Nominative  Plural,  and  on  in  the  Genitive. 

Note  2.— Most  Greek  nouns  generally  assume  the  Latin  forms  in  us  and  um,  and  are 
declined  like  servus  and  templum.    Many  in  os  or  on  have  also  a  form  in  us  or  um. 

Note  3. — For  Greek  nouns  in  eus,  see  68  and  68,  1. 

Note  i.—Panthu8  has  Voc.  Panthu.    Tot  pelagus,  see  61,  T,  note. 

1  To  these  must  be  added  for  early  Latin:  1)  od  in  Abl.  Sing.,  and  a  in  Nom.,  Ace, 
and  Voc.  of  the  Neut.  Plur. ;  see  36,  5,  2),  and  21,  2, 1);  2)  oe  in  Gen.  Sing. ;  oe,  e,  is, 
eis,  and  Is  in  Nom.  Plur. :  poploe=popu\i;  ploirume=p]unmi;  vires=yin;  leibereis  or 
leiberis=U\)en. 

2  Some  recent  editors  have  adopted  tos,  uos,  'com  and  uom,  for  vus,  uus,  vum  and 
uum,  but  the  wisdom  of  such  a  course  is  at  least  questionable.    See  Brambach,  p.  8. 

8  M.  stands  for  masculine,  F.  for /emininey  and  N.  for  neuter. 


V 


*^ 


30 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


THIRD  DECLENSION 


31 


THIRD  DECLENSION:    CONSONANT  AND  I  NOUNS. 

55.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  end  in 

a,  e,  i,  6,  y,  c,  1,  n,  r,  s,  t,  and  x. 

56.  Nouns  of  this  declension  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 

I.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  a  Consonant. 

II.  Nouns  whose  stem  ends  in  I.  * 

CLASS    L— CONSONANT    STEMS. 

67.  Stems  ekbikg  ik  a  Labial:  b  or  p. 

Princeps,  m.,'  a  leader^  chief. 


Norn,  princeps, 

Gen.  principis, 

Dat.  principl, 

Ace.  principem, 

Voc.  princeps, 

AbL  principe, 

Norn,  princip^s, 

Gen.  principum, 

Dat.  principibus, 

Ace.  principCs, 

Voe.  principCs, 

AbL  principi"biis, 


SINGULAR. 

a  leader, 

of  a  leader, 

tOj  for  a  leader, 

a  leader, 

O  leader, 

from,  with,  by  a  leader, 

PLURAL. 

leaders, 

of  leaders, 

to,  for  leaders, 

leaders, 

0  leaders. 


Cask-Suttixes. 
S 

is 

I 

em 

s 

e 

gs 

um 

ibus 

es 

gs 

ibus 


from,  with,  by  leaders. 

1.  Stem  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  this  Paradigm  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem  is  prlncep,  modified  before  an  additional  syllable  to 
prindp  ;  see  22, 1,  and  67,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-sufl^es  appear  distinct  and  separate  from  the  stem ;  s  see 
46,  1,  and  47,  note  2. 

2.  Variable  Vowel. — In  the  final  syllable  of  dissyllabic  consonant 
stems,  short  e  or  i  generally  takes  the  form  of  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  that  of  t  in  all  the  other  cases.     Thus  princeps, 

1  For  Gender,  see  99-115. 

a  See  foot-note  3,  p.  29. 

8  Thus,  prlnceps^  prlncip-is^  etc.  In  the  first  and  second  declensions,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  suffix  can  not  be  separated  from  the  final  vowel  of  the  stem  in  such  forms  as 
menaU^  pueri^  agrU,  etc. 


principis,^  and  judex,  judicis  (59),  alike  have  e  in  the  Nominative  and 
Vocative  Singular  and  t  in  all  the  other  cases,  though  in  princeps  the 
original  form  of  the  radical  vowel  is  e,  and  in  judex,  i.  For  a  similar 
change  in  the  vowel  of  the  stem,  see  miles,  mllitis  (58),  and  carmen,  car- 
minis^  {(^iS).     See  also  ojoi^,  oj&ms  (61). 

In  monosyllables  in  bs  the  stem  ends  in  i ;  see  urbs,  64. 
jFor  the  Locative  in  the  Third  Declension,  see  66,  4. 
iFor^YNOPsis  OF  Declension,  see  87,  89. 

58.  Stems  ending  in  a  Dental  :  D  or  T. 


Lapis,  M.,  stone. 

Aetas,  F.,  age. 

Miles,  M.,  soldier. 

« 

singular. 

Nam. 

lapis 

aetas 

miles 

Gen. 

lapidis 

aet^tis 

militis 

Dat 

lapidl 

aetati 

mlliti 

Ace. 

lapidem 

aetateiu 

militem 

Voc. 

lapis 

aetas 

miles 

AbL 

lapide 

aetate 

PLURAL. 

militc 

Nom. 

lapidCs 

aetatCs 

milit€s 

Gen. 

lapidiim 

aetatum 

milituiii 

DaL 

lapidi1>us 

aetatibus 

militibus 

Ace. 

lapid^s 

aetat^s 

milit€s 

Voc. 

lapides 

aetatSs 

militCs 

AbL 

lapidibus 

aetatibus 

militibus 

Nepos, 

M.,  grandson. 

Virtus,  F.,  virtue. 

SINGULAR. 

Caput,  N.,  head. 

Nom. 

nep5s 

virtus 

caput 

Gen. 

nepotis 

virttitis 

capitis 

Dat. 

nepoti 

virtuti 

capiti 

Aec. 

nepSteiii 

virtutem 

caput 

Voc. 

nepos 

virtus 

caput 

AbL 

nepote 

virtute 

PLURAL. 

capite 

Nom. 

nepotC» 

virtut^s 

capita. 

Gen. 

nepotum 

virtutum 

capitum 

Dat. 

nep5ti1»ii8 

virtutibus 

capitibus 

»  See  22, 1. 

a  See  22, 

1,  foot-note. 

I 


32 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Acc, 

nepotCs 

virtutCs 

capita. 

Voc. 

nepotCs 

virtut€8 

capita 

Abl. 

nepotibiis 

virtutil>iis 

capitibns 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  these  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  lapid^  aetdt^  milit,  nepot^  virtut,  and  caput. 

2)  That  miles  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  i,  and  caput,  u,  i ;  see  57,  2. 

3)  That  the  dental  d  or  t  is  dropped  before  s  :  lapis  for  lajpids,  aetds  for 
aetdts,  miles  for  mllets,  virtus  for  virtuts  /  see  36,  2. 

4)  That  the  case-suffixes,  except  in  the  neuter,  caput  (46,  2),  are  the  same 
as  those  given  above  ;  see  67. 

6)  That  the  neuter,  caput,  has  no  case-suffix  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Singular,  a  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
Plural,  and  the  suffixes  of  masculine  and  feminine  nouns  in  the  other  cases. 

2.  Neuter  stems  in  at  drop  t  in  the  Nominative  Singular  and  end  in  a : 
Nom.,  poema,  Gen.,  poematis  ;  Stem,  poemat.  These  nouns  sometimes  have 
is  for  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural :  poematis  for poematibus. 

3.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  69,  78-84. 

59.  Stems  ending  in  a  Guttural  :  o  or  G. 

Rex,  M.,        Judex,  m.  &  f..  Radix,  p..        Dux,  m.  &f., 

judge. 


Mng. 

Nom.  rex 
Gen.    regis 
Dat.    regl 
Acc.    regem 
Voc.    rex 
Abl.    rege 


SINGULAR. 


judex 

judicis 

judicX 

judicem 

judex 

judice 


root. 

radix 

radicis 

radlcl 

radlcem 

radix 

radlce 


leader. 

dux 

ducis 

duel 

ducem 

dux 

duce 


Nom, 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Acc. 

Voc. 

Abl. 


reg^s 

regum 

regi1»it9 

reg^s 
reg€s 
regibus 


PLURAL. 

judicSs 

judicum 

judicibiis 

judicCs 

judic45s 

judici1>iis 


radices 

radlcum 

radici1>us 

radices 

radices 

radicibus 


ducCfS 

duciini 

ducibus 

duces 

duc©s 

ducibus 


1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  reg,judic,  rddlc,  and  due ;  judic  with  the  variable 
vowel,  i,  e  ;  see  67,  2. 

2)  That  the  case-suffixes  are  those  given  in  57. 

3)  That  s  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  unites  with  cor  g  ot 
the  stem  and  forms  x  ;  see  30. 

2.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  Nouns  in  x,  91-98. 


( 


t^vt^ 


c/ 


.o 


THIRD  DECLENSION.    •  ^' 


33 


60.  Stems  ending  in  l,  m,  n,  or  r. 


Sol,  M., 

Consul,  M., 

Passer,  m., 

Pater,  m., 

sun. 

consul. 

SINGULAR. 

sparrow. 

father. 

Nom. 

s5l 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Gen. 

so  lis 

consults 

passeris 

patris 

DaL 

soli 

consull 

passerl 

patrl 

Acc. 

sOleiii 

consuleiu 

passereiu 

patrem 

Voc. 

sol 

consul 

passer 

pater 

Abl. 

sole 

consule 

PLURAL. 

passere 

patre 

Nom, 

solCs  * 

consults 

passerCs 

patres 

Gen. 

consuliim. 

passerum 

patrii  III 

Dat. 

sOlibus 

consulibus 

pas^eribus 

patribns 

Acc. 

sol€s 

c5nsul©s 

passer^Bs 

patres 

Voc. 

sol^s 

consults 

passeris 

patr€s 

AbL 

solibus 

consulibus 

passeribus 

patribus 

Pastor,  M., 

Led,  M., 

Virgd,  F.,    • 

Carmen,  n., 

shepherd. 

lion. 

SINGULAR. 

maiden. 

song. 

Nom. 

pa&tor 

leS 

Virgo 

'barmen 

Gen. 

pastoris 

leonis 

virginis 

carminis 

Dat. 

pastorl 

leoni 

virgini 

carminl 

Acc. 

pastoreiii 

leonem 

virginem 

carmen 

Voc. 

pastor 

leo 

virgo 

carmen 

AbL 

pastore 

leone 

PLURAL. 

virgine 

carmine 

Nom. 

pastoris 

leonis 

virginis 

carmina 

Gen, 

pastoritiu 

leSniuwi 

virginuut 

carminum 

Dat. 

pastoribiis 

leonibus 

virginibus 

carminibus 

Acc. 

pastoris 

leon€s 

virgin©  s 

carmina, 

Voc. 

pastoris 

le6n€s 

virginis 

carmina 

AbL 

pastoribus 

leonibus 

virginibus 

carminibus 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe — 
1)  That  the  stems  are  sol,  consul,  passer,  pair, ^ pastor,  ledn,  virgon,  and 
carmen. 


1  Many  monosyllables  want  the  Gen.  Plur.;  see  133,  6. 

2  That  is,  the  stem  is  pair  when  followed  by  a  vowel;  but  when  r  becomes  final,  it 
develops  e  before  it,  and  pair  becomes  pater  ;  see  29,  note. 


34 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


2)  That  virgO  (virgon)  has  the  variable  vowel,  o,  1,  and  carmen^  e,  i. 

3)  That  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative  Singular  s,  the  usual  case-suffix 
for  masculine  and  feminine  nouns,  is  omitted,  and  that  in  those  cases  the  stem 
pdstdr  shortens  o,  while  leon  and  virgon  drop  n ;  see  21,  2,  2),  and  36,  5,  3). 

2.  HiEMS,  the  only  stem  in  xn,  takes  s  in  the  Nominative  and  Vocative 
Singular.  Also  sanguis  (for  sangulns),  blood,  and  Salamls  (for  Salamins), 
Salamis,  which  drop  n  before  s;  see  36,  3,  note  3. 

3.  Passer,  Pater. — Most  nouns  in  er  are  declined  like  parser,  but  those 
in  ter,  and  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  pater  ;  see  77,  2. 

4.  Le5,  Virgo. — Most  nouns  in  o  are  declined  like  le5,  but  those  in  do 
and  gro,  with  a  few  others,  are  declined  like  virgo;  see  7»,  with  exceptions. 

5.  Four  stems  in  or  change  otou/  see  77,  4. 

6.  For  the  Locative  in  the  Third  Declension,  see  66,  4. 

7.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  73,  76-77. 

61.  Stems  ending  in  s. 


Flos,  M., 

Jus,  N.,    , 

Opus,  N., 

Corpus,  N., 

flower. 

• 

riglit. 

wovTc. 

body. 

V 

SINGULAR. 

Nom, 

• 

flOs 

opus 

corpus 

Gen. 

floris 

jari» 

operii» 

corporis 

DaL 

florl 

jurl. 

operl 

corporl 

Ace. 

floreiii 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

Voc. 

flos 

jus 

opus 

corpus 

AbL 

flore 

jure 

opere 

corpore 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

fiords 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Gen. 

florum 

juruin 

operum 

corpora  in 

Dat. 

flOrtbus 

juribiis 

operibus 

corporibus 

Ace. 

flares 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

Voc. 

floras 

jura 

opera 

corpora 

AbL 

floribus 

juribus 

operibus 

corporibus 

1.  Stems  and  Case-Suffixes. — In  the  Paradigms  observe— 

1)  That  the  stems  are  Jlos,  Jus ^  opos^^  and  corpos. 

2)  That  opiis  has  the  variable  vowel,  e,  u,  and  corpus,  o,  u. 

3)  That  8  of  the  stem  becomes  r  between  two  vowels :  Jlos,  Jldris  (for 
flosis)  ;  see  31,  1. 

4)  That  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  omit  the  case-suffix;  see  60, 1,  3). 

2.  For  Synopsis  of  Declension,  see  79,  80,  8^-84. 


*  Opos  occurs  in  early  Latin.  In  o«,  from  the  Primary  SuflSx  as  (330),  o  was  weak- 
ened to  u  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Voc.  Sing,  of  opus  and  corpus,  while  in  all  the  other 
case-forms  it  was  weakened  to  e  in  opus^  but  retained  unchanged  in  corpus  ;  see  8/8. 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


35 


CLASS    II.  — I    STEMS. 

62.  Stems  ending  in  l,— Nouns  in  is  and  es,  not 
increasing  in  the  Genitive.  * 

Tussis,  F. ,     Turris,  f.  ,     Ignis,  m.  ,     Hostis,  m.  &  f.  ,  Nubes,  ^  f.  , 
cough.  tower.  fire.  enemy.  clomK 


SINGULAR. 

Nom. 

tussis 

turris 

Ignis 

hostis 

nubCs 

Gen. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubis 

DaL 

tussi 

turrl 

ignl 

hosti 

nubl 

Ace. 

tussim 

turrim.  em      ignem 

hostem 

nubem 

Voc. 

tussis 

turris 

ignis 

hostis 

nubCs 

AbL 

tussI . 

turrl,  e 

ignl,  e 

PLURAL. 

hoste 

nube 

Nom. 

tussSs 

turrSs 

ignes 

hostCs 

nubCs 

Gen. 

tussiuiUL 

turrium 

ignium 

hostiiim 

nubium 

Dai. 

tussibus 

turribus 

ignibus 

hostibus 

nubibus 

Ace. 

tuss€s.  Is 

turrCs,  Is 

ignCs,  Is 

hostis.  Is 

nub^s.  Is 

Voc 

tusses 

turr€s 

ign€s 

host€s 

nub€s 

AbL 

tussibus 

turribus 

ignibus 

hostibus 

nubibus 

I.  Paradigms. — Observe — 

1.  That  the  stems  are  tussi,  turri,  igni,  hosti,  and  nuhi.^ 

2.  That  the  case-endings,  including  the  characteristic  i,  which  disappears 
in  certain  cases,  are  as  follows : 

singitlae.  plfral. 

Nom.    is,  es  es 

ium 
ibus 
es.  Is 
es 
ibus 


Gen. 

IS 

Dat. 

i 

Ace. 

im,  em 

Voc. 

is 

AbL 

1,  e 

»  That  is,  having  as  many  syllables  in  the  Nom.  Sing,  as  in  the  Gen.  Sing. 

2  Observe  (1)  that  tussis,  turris,  ignis,  and  hostis  differ  in  declension  only  in  the  Ace. 
and  Abl.  Sing.,  iussis  showing  the  final  *  of  the  stem  in  both  those  cases,  turris  some- 
times in  both,  ignis  sometimes  in  the  Abl.,  not  in  the  Ace,  hostis  in  neither  (2)  that  nuh^ 
differs  from  the  other  fom-  in  taking  is  instead  of  is  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing. 

*  Nouns  in  es.  Gen.  is,  are  best  treated  as  t-stems,  although  some  of  them  were 
originally  «-stems  (61).  Thus,  originally  the  stem  of  nubes  was  itself  nuhes,  but  s  was 
finally  treated  as  the  Nom.  suffix,  and  the  word  was  accordingly  declined  like  the  large 
class  of  »-nouns  mentioned  under  6»,  V.  The  origin  of  i-stems  is  obscure.  A  few  cor- 
respond to  «-stems  in  the  cognate  tongues,  as  ignis,  ovis^  turris ;  a  few  are  weakened 
from  a-stems  or  o-stems,  6%  forts,  a  door,  Gr.  flvpa,  imber=imbris,  rain-storm,  Gr. 
ofx^po? ;  some  are  formed  from  «-stems,  as  nubes,  just  mentioned.  Upon  the  general 
subject  of  i-stems,  see  Koby,  pp.  186-149;  Schleicher,  pp.  884,  432,  453 ;  Corssen,  I.  231, 
571,  783  seq. ;  II.  227 ;  Merguet,  pp.  36-40,  51,  «7,  95,  etc. 


36 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


II.  Like  Tussis — Ace.  im,  Abl.  i — are  declined — 

1.  Buris^  plough-tail ;  rdvis^  hoarseness  ;  sitis^  thirst. 

2.  In  the  Singular:  (1)  Names  of  rivers  and  places  in  is  not  increasing  in 
the  Genitive:  Tiberis,  Hispalis ;  see  683.  (2)  Greek  nouns  in  is,  Gen.  is, 
and  some  others. 

III.  Like  TURRis — Ace.  im,  em,  Abl.  i,  e — are  declined — 

Cldvis,  key ;  febris,  fever ;  messis,  harvest ;  ndvis,  ship ;  pnppis,  stem ; 
rest  is,  rope ;  securis,  axe  ;  sementis,  sowing ;  strigilis,  strigil. 

1.  Araris,  or  Arar  (for  Araris),^  the  Saone,  and  Zigfer  (for  Ligeris)^^  the 
Loire,  have  Ace.  im,  em,  Abl.  i,  e. 

IV.  Like  IGNIS — Ace.  em,  Abl.  i,  e — are  declined — 

Amnis,  river;  angnis,  serpent;  avis,  bird;  bilis,  bile;  clvis,  citizen; 
cldssis,  fleet ;  collis,  hill ;  finis ^  end ;  orhls,  circle  ;  postis,  post ;  unguis,  nail, 
and  a  few  others. 

Note  1. — Adjectives  in  er  (for  ris)  and  those  in  is  hare  the  Ablative  in  i  (153, 
154).  Accordingly,  when  such  adjectives  are  used  substantively^  the  i  is  generally  re- 
tained :  /September,  Septembrl,  September;  ^  familiar  is,  familiar  i,,  friend.  But  adjec- 
tives used  as  proper  names  have  e :  Juvendlis,  Juvendle,  Juvenal. 

Note  2. — Imber  (for  imbris),  storm ;  nesper  (for  vesperis),  evening,  and  a  few  others, 
sometimes  have  the  Ablative  in  i. 


V.  Like  HOSTis — Ace.  em,  Abl.  e — are  declined  all  nouns  in  is,  Gen. 
is,  not  provided  for  under  XL,  III.,  and  IV.^ 

VI.  Like  NUBES  are  declined  all  nouns  in  es,  Gen.  is,* 

63.  Stems  ending  in  i. — Neuters  in  e,  al,  and  ar. 

Mare,  sea.        Animal,  animal,         Calcar,  spur. 


SINGULAR. 

Case-Endings. 

Nom, 

mare 

animal 

calcar 

e—« 

Gen, 

maris 

animalis 

calcaris 

is 

Dat, 

marl 

anim^ill 

calcarl 

I 

Ace. 

mare 

animal 

calcar 

e     « 

Voc. 

mare 

animal 

calcar 

e— « 

Abl, 

marl*^ 

animall 

calcarl 

I 

1  The  shortening  of  Araris  to  Arar  and  of  Ligeris  to  Liger  is  similar  to  the  short- 
ening of  puerus  to  puer  ;  see  51,  2,  4)  ;  36,  5,  2),  note. 

2  Names  of  months  are  adjectives  used  substantively.  Originally  mensis,  month,  was 
understood. 

^  Except  canis  and  juvenis,  which  are  consonant-stems,  but  have  assumed  i  in  the 
Nom.  Sing.  In  the  plural  they  have  urn  in  the  Gen.  and  es  in  the  Ace.  Apis,  mensis, 
and  volucris  often  have  U7n  for  turn  in  the  Gen. 

*  Except  strues  and  vdtes,  which  generally  have  um  in  Gen.  PL,  and  scdis,  which  has 
um  or  ium.    Compes,  Gen.  edis,  has  also  iutn. 

fi  See  2  below. 

«  The  dash  here  implies  that  the  case-ending  is  sometimes  wanting. 


THIRD  DECLENSION, 


37 


Nom, 

Gen. 

Dai. 

Ace, 
Voc, 
Abl. 


maria. 
mariuin 

maril^us 
maria. 
maria. 
maribiis 


PLURAL. 

animalia 

animaliiun 

animali1>us 

animalia 

animalia 

animalibus 


calcaria 

calcariuiUL 

calcaribus 

calcaria 

calcaria 

calcSribiis 


la 

ium 

ibus 

ia 

ia 

ibus 


1.  Paradigms. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-ending  i  is  changed  to  e  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative, 
and  Vocative  Singular  of  mare,  and  dropped  in  the  same  cases  of  animal  (for 
animdle)  and  calcar  (for  calcdre) ;  see  84, 1,  note ;  87 ;  21,  2,  2). 

2)  That  the  case -endings  include  the  characteristic  i. 

2.  The  following  have  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular:— (1)  Names  of  towns 
in  e ;  Praeneste,'—{2)  Generally  rete,  net,  and  in  poetry  sometimes  mare. 

Note.— Neuters  In  ar,  with  a  short  in  the  Genitive,  are  consonant-stems :  nectar, 
nectaris,  nectar;  also  sal,  salt,  and/ar,  corn. 

64.  Stems  ending  in  I. — Nouns  in  s  and  x  generally 
preceded  hy  a  consonant. 


» 

Cliens,  m.  &p., 

Urbs,  F., 

Arx,  F., 

Mus,^  M., 

client. 

city, 

SINGULAR. 

citadel. 

mouse. 

Nom, 

cligns 

urbs 

arx^ 

mus 

Gen, 

clientis* 

urbis 

arcis 

muris^ 

Dat, 

clientl 

urbl 

arcl 

murl 

Ace. 

clienteiit 

urbein 

arceiii 

murem 

Voc, 

cliens 

urbs 

arx 

mus 

Abl, 

cliente 

urbe 

PLURAL. 

arce 

miire 

Nom, 

client<Bs 

urbSs 

arc©s 

miirCs 

Gen, 

clientiuiUL 

urbiiun 

arciuiii 

muriiuu 

Dai, 

clientilms 

urbil>iis 

arcil^us 

muribus 

Ace. 

client©»,  Is 

urbSs,  Is 

arcCs,  Is 

murCs,  Is 

Voc. 

client©  s 

urb©s 

arcSs 

murCs 

Abl, 

clientibus 

urbibiis 

arcil^ns 

muril>iis 

'  Cliens  is  for  cUenUs,  urbs  for  urbis,  arx  for  arcis,  and  mils  for  mUsis  ;  see  36,  5, 
2),  note.    Mus,  originally  an  «-stem,  Greek  fiv?,  became  an  t-stem  in  Latin  by  assuming  i, 

«  The  vowel  e  is  here  short  before  nt,  but  long  before  ns;  see  16,  note  2.  Indeed,  it 
seems  probable  that  nt  and  nd  shorten  a  preceding  vowel,  as  ns  lengthens  it.  See  Mul- 
ler,  p.  27 ;  Kitschl,  Ehein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488. 

3  Xin  arx=c8,  c  belonging  to  the  stem,  and  s  being  the  Nom.  suffix. 

*  Muris  ifl  for  musis  ;  s  changed  to  r  between  two  vowels ;  see  31, 1. 


38 


THIRD  DECLENSION. 


1.  Paradigms. — Observe — 

1)  That  the  stems  are  clienti,  urbi^  arci,  and  muri, 

2)  That  these  nouns  are  declined  in  the  singular  precisely  like  consonant- 
stems,  and  in  the  plural  precisely  like  all  other  masculine  and  feminine 
i-stems.i 

^     2.  This  class  of  «-stems  includes — 

1)  Most  nouns  in  ns  and  rs:^  dims,  clientis,  client;  cohors,  cohortis, 
cohort. 

2)  Monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant,»  and  a  few  in  « 
and  X  preceded  by  a  vowel:*  urhs,  city;  arx,  citadel;  Us,  strife;  nox, 
night. 

3)  Names  of  nations  in  as  and  w,  or,  if  plural,  in  dtes  and  Ites :  Arpinds, 
pi.  Arpindtes,  an  Arpinatian,  the  Arpinates  ;  Samnis,  pi.  Samnltis^  the 
Samnites. 

4)  Optimdtes,  the  aristocracy ;  Pendtes,  the  household  gods,  and  occasion- 
ally other  nouns  in  ds. 

Note  1.— Caro,  flesh,  has  a  form  in  is^  camis  (for  carinia),  from  which  are  formed 
carnl^  camium^  etc. 

Note  2.— Par«,  part,  sometimes  has  parUm  in  the  Accusative. 

Note  Z.—Rus^  country,  sora^  lot,  supellex^  fhrniturei,  and  a  few  other  words  some- 
times have  the  Ablative  in  I, 

65.  Summary  of  I-stems. — To  l-stems  belong — 

1.  All  nouns  in  is  and  es  which  do  not  increase  in  the  Genitive  ; 
see  62.     Here  belong  also — 

1)  Names  of  months  in  ber  (for  bris) :  September^  October,  etc. ;  see  6J5,  N.  1. 

2)  The  following  nouns  in  ber  and  ter  (for  brU  and  tris) :  imber,  storm ; 
lirvter,  boat;  uter,  leathern  sack;  venter,  belly;  generally  also  Insuber,  an 
Insubrian. 

2.  Neuters  in  e,  al  (for  alls)  and  ar  (for  aris)  ;  see  63  ;  also  63, 
2,  note. 

3.  Many  nouns  in  s  and  x — especially  (1)  nouns  in  ns  and  rs, 
and  (2)  monosyllables  in  s  and  x  preceded  by  a  consonant ;  see 
64,  2. 


*  Nouns  thus  declined  are  most  conveniently  treated  as  t-nouns,  though  the  stem 
appears  to  end  in  a  consonant  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  i  in  the  Plur.  In  some  of  these  nouns 
the  stem  has  lost  its  final  t  in  the  Sing.,  while  in  others  it  ended  originally  in  a  con- 
sonant, but  afterward  assumed  ♦  in  the  Plur.,  at  least  in  certain  cases ;  see  63, 1.,  foot- 
note. 

*  Some  of  these  often  have  um  in  poetry  and  sometimes  even  in  prose,  as  parens, 
parent,  generally  has. 

8  Except  (ap«)  opts  and  the  Greek  nouns,  grf)p8,  lynx^  sphinx. 

*  Namely,  faiMc,  glls,  lU,  mas,  nix,  nox,  os  (ossis),  ma,  generally  fraua  and  mils. 


i 


VlyCy^ 


Ou^^C 


TigRD  DECLENmON. 


39 


66.  Special  Paradigms. 


SUS,  M.  &  F., 

swine. 


Bos,  M.  &  F.,       Nix,  F., 


Nom, 
Gen, 
Dat. 
Ace, 
Voc. 
AbL 

Nom, 
Gen. 


Dat 


'■\ 


Ace, 
Voc, 


All 


■  \ 


suis 

sul 

suenE 

sus 

sue 

su€s 

suum 

suibus 
su1>us 

suCs 
su€s 
suil^us 
subus 


ox,  cow, 

bos^ 

bovis 

bovl 

bovem 

b5s 

bove 

bovC» 
j  bovum 
(  bonjn 

j  bobus  ^ 
i  bubus  * 
bovCs 
bov©s 
bobii-S 
bubus 


mow, 

SINGULAR. 

nix 

nivis 

nivl 

nivem 

nix 

nive 

PLURAL. 

nivCs 
nivium 


Senex,  m., 
old  man, 

senex 

senis 

seni 

senem 

senex 

Bene 

sen^s 
senuni 


Vis,  F., . 
force, 

vis 

vis  2 

vim. 

vis 
vl 

vlr€s 
viriuut 


nivibus  senibiis         vlribu» 


(  bo 
jbu 


nivCs 
nivCs 

nivibus 


senCs 
sen^s 

senibus 


vlr€s 
vir^s 

vlribus 


1.  The  Stems  are  m;  bov ;  m^  (nix = nigs),  niv,  nivi;^senec,  sen;  vl 
(sing.),  viri  (for  vlst^  plur.) ;  *  see  31,  1. 

2.  Sus,  and  grus,  crane,  the  only  u  stems  in  this  declension,  are  de- 
clined alike,  except  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural,  where  ffrHs  is 

regular:  gruibus. 

8.  JuppiTER,  Jupiter,  is  thus  declined;  Juppiter,  Jovis,  Jovi,  Jovem, 

Juppiter,  Jove.     Stems,  Juppiter  and  Jov, 

4.  Locative.— Many  names  of  towns  have  a  Locative  Singular  in  i  or  e 
denoting  the  place  in  which  (45,  2).     Thus  : 

Nom,  Karthago,  Carthage, 

Gen.    Karthaginis,  of  Carthage, 

Dat.    Karthagini,  for  Carthage, 

Carthage, 

0  Carthage, 

from  Carthage, 


Ace,    Karthaginem, 
Voc.    Karthago, 
Abl,    Karthagine, 


Loc,    Karthagini  or  e,      at  Carthxge. 


Tibur, 

Tiburis, 

Tlburl, 

Tibur, 

Tibur, 

Tibure, 

Tlburl  or  e. 


Tibur, 

of  Tibur, 

for  Tibur, 

Tibur, 

O  Tibur, 

from  Tibur, 

at  Tibur, 


»  Bos  =  bovs,  bous ;  bobua,  bubus  =  bovibus,  boubus. 

a  The  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing.— «?«,  -pi— are  rare. 

»  For  nigv%  from  which  nig  is  formed  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  v;  see  27,  36, 

8,  note  1. 

*  Vl  is  formed  from  zlsi  by  first  dropping  i  and  then  a. 


40 


GREEK  NOUNS. 


67.  Case-Suffixes  ai^-d  Case-Endings.' 


SINGULAR. 

Consonant  Stems. 

I-Stems. 

Maso.  and  Fkm. 

Neut. 

Maso.  and  Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

8~» 

3 

is,  es,  8 

e-« 

Gen. 

is 

is 

is 

is 

Dai. 

I 

I 

I 

X 

Ace. 

em 

— 

im,  em 

e,— 

Voc. 

s 

— 

is,  6s,  s 

e, 

AbL 

e 

e 

l,e 

X 

y 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

6s 

a 

6s 

ia 

Gen. 

um 

um 

ium 

ium 

Dab. 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

Ace. 

68 

a 

6s,  Is 

ia 

Voc. 

6s 

a 

6s 

ia 

AbL 

ibus 

ibus 

ibus 

» 

ibus 

Note. — The  following  irregular  case-endings  occur :  ^ 

1.  J*,  for  1,  in  the  Dat.  Sing. :  *  aerl  for  aeri. 

2.  Eis^  for  i«,  in  the  Ace.  Plur. :  clveia  for  cwls^  elves, 
8.  For  Geeek  Endings,  see  68. 


GREEK    NOUNS. 

68.  Most  Greek  nouns  of  the  third  declension  are  en- 
tirely regular,  but  a  few  retain  certain  peculiarities  of  the 
Greek.     The  following  are  examples  : 


Lampas,  f., 
torch. 

Nom.  lampas 
Gen.  lampadis,  os 
Dat.   lampadi,  i 
Ace.    lampadem,  a 
Voc.   lampas 
AbL    lampade 


Phryx,  M.  &  F., 
Phrygian. 

SINGULAR. 

Phryx 

Phrygis,  os 
Phrygl,  i 
Phrygem,  a 
Phryx 
Phryge 


Heros,  m., 
hero. 

herOs 
herois 
herol, i 
heroem,  a. 
heros 
heroe 


1  On  the  distinction  between  Case-Sufflxes  and  Case-Endings,  see  46, 1,  and  47,  note  3. 

'  The  dash  denotes  that  the  case-ending  is  wanting. 

^  To  these  should  be  added  for  early  Latin— 1)  us  and  es  in  the  Gen.  Sing. :  hominus 
=  hominis;  salutes  =  salutis;  2)  id  and  e  in  the  Abl.  Sing. :  conventionld  =  conven- 
tidne;  patre  =i  patre  ;  8)  U  and  eis  in  the  Nom.  Plur.  of  i-nouns  :  Jineis,  finis  =  fines. 
On  the  Case- Endings  of  the  Third  Declension  in  early  Latin,  see  Wordsworth,  pp. 
63-73;  Kuhner,  I.,  pp.  173-179. 

*  This  6  is  generally  long. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


41 


PLURAL. 

Nom.  lampadCs,  es 

Phryg©s,  es 

h6r5€s,  es 

Gen,    lampadum 

Phrygiim 

heroiim 

Dat.     lampadibits 

Phrygibus 

heroibus 

Ace.     lampadis,  as 

Phryges,  as 

heroes,  as 

Voc.     lampade s,  es 

PhrygCs,  es 

hero45s,  es 

AbL     lampadibus 

Phrygibus 

heroibus 

Pericles,  m., 

Paris,  M.,      Dido,  f.. 

Orpheus,  m., 

Pericles. 

Paris.            Dido. 

SINGULAR.^ 

Orpheus. 

Nom.  Pericles 

Paris               Dido 

Orpheus  • 

Gen.  Periclis,  I 

Paridis,  os    Didus,  onis 

Orph-eos,  el,  I 

Dat.  Pericll,  i 

ParidI,  i         Dido,  onl,  oni 

Orph-el,  ei,  i,  eo 

■r»    .  ,                       (Paridein,  a   ^  , 
Ace.  Periclem,  ea,  Sn-J_,    .       .         Dido,  onem 

Orphea,  euui 

Voc.  Pericles,  es,  45 

Pari                 Dido 

Orpheu 

AbL  Pericle 

Paride            Dido,  one 

Orpheo 

1.  Observe  that  these  Paradigms  fluctuate  in  certain  cases — (1)  between 
the  Latin  and  the  Greek  forms  :  lampadis^  os  ;  lampadem^  a  ;  heroes^  as : — (2) 
between  difierent  declensions:  Pericles,  between  Dec.  I.,  Periclen,  Pericle, 
Dec.  II.,  Pericll  (Gen.),  and  Dec.  III.,  Periclis,  etc. :  Orpheus,  between  Dec. 
II.,  Orphel,  Orphed,  etc.,  and  Dec.  III.,  Orpheos,  etc. 

2.  Nouns  in  ys  have  Gen.  yos,  ys,  Ace.  ym,  yn  :  Othrys,  Othryos^  OtJirym, 
Othryn. 

3.  The  Vocative  Singular  drops  s — (1)  in  nouns  in  eus,  ys,  and  in  proper 
names  in  as,  Gen.  antis :  Atlas,  Atld : — (2)  generally  in  nouns  in  is,  and 
sometimes  in  other  words :  Pari. 

4.  In  the  Genitive  Plural,  the  ending  on  occurs  in  a  few  titles  of  books : 
Metamorphoses  (title  of  a  poem),  Metamorphoseon. 

5.  In  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural  the  ending  si,  before  vowels  sin, 
occurs  in  poetry :  Troades,  Troasin. 

6.  A  few  neuters  used  only  in  the  Nominative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  OS  in  the  Singular  and  e  in  the  Plural ;  melos,  mete,  song. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


I.  Nouns  ending  in  a  Vowel. 

69.  Nouns  in  a :  3  Genitive  in  atis : 

poema,  poem,  poematis. 


Stem  in  at : 
poemat. 


*  The  Plural  is  of  course  generally  wanting;  see  130,  2. 

8  £'t^  is  a  diphthong  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc. ;  ei  sometimes  a  diphthong  in  the  Gen. 
and  Dat. 

'  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 


42 


SYJSrOFSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


70.  Nouns  in  e : 


mare,  8ea^ 


71,  Nouns  in  I:^ 

sinapl,  mustard^ 


Genitive  in  is : 
maris, 

Genitive  in  is : 
sinapis. 


Stem  in  i : 
mari. 
Stem  in  i : 
sinSpi. 


Note.— Many  nouns  in  I  are  indeclinable.    Compounds  of  mell  have  itis  in  the  Geni- 
tive :  oxymeli^  oxymelitis^  oxymel. 

72.  Nouns  in  6  or  o :  Genitive  in  onia :  Stem  in  on  : 

leo,  lion,  leOnis,  leon. 

Exceptions.— Genitive  in — 

1.  onis : — most  national  names :  Macedd,  Macedonia,  Macedonian. 

2.  inis :  ^ — Apollo  ;  homb,  man ;  nemo,  nobody  ;  turhb,  whirlwind ;  and 

nouns  in  do  and  go :  grand^,  grandinis,  hail ;  virgd, 
virginis,  maiden  ;  except — harpagd,  onis  ;  ligo,  onis  ; 
praedb,  onis,  also  comedo,  cudo,  mango,  spado,  unedo,  udo. 

3.  nis  : — card,  carnis  (for  carinis '),  flesh  ;  see  64,  2,  note  1. 

4.  enis  i-^Anid,  Anienis,  river  Anio;  Nerid,  Nerienis. 

5.  us : — a  few  Greek  feminines :  Dido,  Dldus  ;  see  68. 

73.  Nouns  in  y  3 :  Gen.  in  yis  (yos,  ys) :  Stem  in  y ; 

misy,  copperas,  misyis  (yos,  ys),  misy. 

II.  Nouns  ending  in  a  Mute  or  Liquid. 

74.  Nouns  in  c :  alec,  alccis,  pickle ;  lac,  Idciis,^  milk. 

75.  Nouns  in  1 :  Genitive  in  lis :  Stem  in  1 : 

sol,  sun,  soils,  sol. 

'Sorc^.—Fel^fellis,  gall ;  mel,  mellis,  honey ;  «a/,  salia,  salt.    On  neuters  in  al,  see  63. 

76.  Nouns  in  n ;  Genitive  in  nis :  Stem  in  n : 

paean,  paean,  paeSnis,  paeSn. 

flume n,  stream,  fluminis,  flumen,  in. 

Note  1.— Nouns  in  en  have  the  variable  radical  vowel— e,  i;  see  60, 1,  2). 
Note  2.— There  are  a  few  Greek  words  in  on,  Gen.  in  onis,  ontis,  St.  in  on,  ont : 
aidon,  aedonis,  nightingale ;  A'enophon,  XenopTwntis,  Xenophon. 

77.  Nouns  in  r :  Genitive  in  ris :  Stem  in  r : 

career,  prison,  carcerls,  career. 

1.  Nouns  in  &r,  ar:  (1)  ar,  G.  aris,  St.  ari:  Idr,  Idris,  house;  {^)  par, 
parts,  pair ;  far,  /arris,  com ;  Mpar,  hepatis,  liver.  For  ar,  G.  arts,  and  ar, 
G.  aris,  see  63. 

2.  Nouns  in  ter:  Gen.  in  tris :  pater,  patris,  father ;  except  later,  Uteris, 
tile;  iter,itineris,v^Q,y',  Juppiter,Jovis;  and  Greek  nouns:  crater,  crdt€ri8,how\. 

^  These  are  of  Greek  origin. 

'  Stem  in  on,  in,  or  oni,  ini,  ni  ;  see  60, 1,  2). 

'  Nouns  in  y  are  of  Greek  origin,  and  are  often  indeclinable. 

*  The  only  nouns  in  c. 


SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION 


43 


Note. — Iniber  and  names  of  months  in  ber  have  hris  in  the  Genitive ;  imher,  inibris, 
shower;  September,  Septembris,  September;  see  63,  IV,,  notes  1  and  2. 

3.  Nouns  in  or :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  pastor,  pdstoris,  shepherd ;  but  a  few 
have  G.  oris,  St.  or:  arbor,  arhoris,  tree;  aequor,  sea;  marmor,  marble. 
But  cor,  cordis,  heart. 

4.  Four  in  nr :  G.  oris,  St.  or :  ebur,  ivory  ;  femur,  thigh ;  jecur,  liver ; 
robur,  strength ;  but  femur  has  &lao feminis,  and  jecur,  jecinoris,  Jecineris, 
&nd  Jocineris, 

78.  Nouns  in  ut :  Genitive  in  itis :  Stem  in  ut,  it : 

caput,  head,  capitis,  caput,  it. 

ni.  Nouns  ent)ing  in  S. 

79.  Nouns  in  as :  Genitive  in  atis :  Stem  in  at : 

aetas,  age,  aetatis,  aetat. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  aris : — mas,  maris,  a  male ; — stem,  mas,  mari;  see  31,  1. 

2.  asis : — vds,  vasis,  vessel.^ 

3.  assis : — as,  assis,  an  as  (a  coin). 

4.  antis : — only  masculine  Greek  nouns :  adamds,  antis,  adamant. 

Note. — Anas,  duck,  and  neuter  Greek  nouns  in  <w  have  atis :  anas,  anatis.  Vas, 
surety,  Areas,  Arcadian,  and  feminine  Greek  nouns  in  as  have  adis:  vas,  vadis, 
lampas,  lampadis.^ 

80.  Nouns  in  es :  Genitive  in  is :  Stem  in  i :  ^ 

nabSs,  cloud,  nubis,  nubi. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  edis  : — heres,  heredis,  heir ;  merces,  reward. 

2.  edis  : — pes,  pedis,  foot,  and  its  compounds :  compds,  cdis,  a  fetter. 

3.  eris: — Ceres,  Cercris.^ 

4.  etis : — quies,  rest,  with  compounds,  iiiquies,  requies,  and  a  few  Greek 

words :  lebes,  tapes, 
6.  etis : — abies,  fir-tree ;  aries,  ram ;  paries,  wall. 
NoTB.— ^e»,  bessia,  two-thirds ;  aes,  aeris,*  copper ;  praes,  praedis,  surety. 

81 .  Nouns  in  es  :  Genitive  in  itis :  Stem  in  at,  it : 

miles,  soldier,  mllitis,  milet,  it. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  etis : — interpres,  interpreter ;  seges,  crop ;  teges,  covering. 

2.  idis : — obses,  hostage ;  praeses,  president ;  see  57,  2. 

1  Vds  is  the  only  stem  in  s  which  does  not  change  «  to  r  between  two  vowels ;  see 
61, 1,  3). 

*  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  ados  for  adis, 
8  But  see  64, 1. 

*  See  61, 1,  8). 


44 


SYJ}^OFSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


Stem  in  i : 
avi. 


82.  Nouns  in  is :  Genitive  in  is  ; 

avis,  Urd,  avis, 

ExcpEPTiONS.— Genitive  in 

1.  eris  :—cim5,  ci^im^,»  ashes  ;  CMcwm?^,  cucumber ;  j»w/vjs,  dust ;  vomw, 

ploughshare. 

2.  idis  i—^apis,  cup ;  cassis,  helmet ;  cuspis,  spear ;   lapis,  stone ;  prO- 

mulsisy  antepast,  and  a  few  Greek  *  words :  as  tyrannis, 
idis,  tyranny.     Sometimes  ibis,  and  iigris, 

3.  ixdsi—poUis  or  pollen,  flour;  sanguis,  blood. 

l^OTE.—Glis,  gllris,  dormouse;  Us,  litis,  strife;  semis,  aemissis,  half  an  as;  ms, 
Dltis;  QuirU,  Quirltis;  SamnU,  Samnltis. 

83.  Nouns  in  6s :  Genitive  in  oris :  Stem  in  6s ; 

mOs,  custom,  mOris,  mOs. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  6tis: — cos,  coils,  whetstone;  dos,  dowry;  nepds,  grandson;  sacerdOs^ 

priest ;  and  a  few  Greek  words. 

2.  5dis  :—cusios,  custodis,  guardian ;  see  36,  2. 

3.  6is  :— a  few  masculine  Greek  nouns ;  heros,  hero ;  Minds,  Tros. 
Note,— Arbos  or  arbor,  arhoris,  tree;  os,  oasis,  bone;  Us,  bovie,  ox;  see  66. 

84.  Nouns  in  us,  Gen.  in  uris  or  utis :  stem  in  us  or  ut. 

1.  uris  :— crw5,  leg ;  jus,  right ;  jm,  soup ;  mus,  mouse ;  pus,  pus ;  rus, 

country ;  tus  (thus),  incense ;  tellus,  earth. 

2.  utlsi—juventus,  youth;   salus,  safety;   senectus,  old  age;   serviius, 

servitude ;  virtus,  virtue ;  see  36,  2. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  udis : — incus,  anvil ;  palus,  marsh ;  suhscus,  dovetail. 

2.  uis  i-—grus,  gruis,  crane ;  siJts,  swine. 

3.  untis :— a  few  Greek  names  of  places  :   Trapezus,  untis. 

4.  odis  :— Greek  compounds  in  pus :  tripus,  tripodis,  tripod. 

'E0TE.-Frau8,fraudi8,  fraud;  lam,  laudis,  praise;  see  64,  2,  2),  foot-note.  For 
Greek  nouns  in  eus,  see  68. 

85.  Nouns  in  us :  Gen.  in  eris  or  oris :  stem  in  os. 

1.  eris  i—latus,  lateris,  side :  stem,  latos,^  So  also :  acus,  foedus,  funus, 
genus,  glomus,  munus,  olus,  onus,  opus,  pondus,  rudus,  scelus,  sldus,  ulcus] 
vellus,  Venus,  viscus,  vulnus. 

2.  oris  '.-^corpus,  corporis,  body  :  stem,  corpos.^    So  also  decus,  dedecus. 


»  Stem  cinis,  ciner  for  cines  with  variable  vowel  i,  e;  see  24, 1 ;  31, 1 ;  and  67  2. 
»  Greek  nouns  sometimes  have  idos  or  even  ios  for  idis;  SalamU  has  halamlnia  • 
Simois,  Sim  cent  is.  ' 

»  See  61, 1,  foot-note. 


1 


SYJVOPSIS  OF  THE  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


45 


f acinus,  faenus,  frlgus,  lepu>s,  lltics,  nemus,  pectus,  pecus,  penus,  pignus,  ster- 
cus,  tempus,  tergus. 

Note,— Peci^«,  pecudis,  a  head  of  cattle;  Ligus,  Liguria,  Ligurian;  see  31. 

86.  Nouns  in  ys :  *        Genitive  in  jris,  yos,  ys :        Stem  in  y : 


Othryos, 

Genitive  in  bis : 
urbis, 

Genitive  in  mis : 


Othry. 

Stem  in  bi :  2 
«rbi. 

Stem  in  m : 
hiem. 

Stem  in  ep,  ip. 
princep,  ip. 


Othrys, 

87.  Nouns  in  bs : 

urbs,  city, 

88.  Nouns  in  ms : 

hiems,  winter,  hiemis, 

89.  Nouns  in  eps :  Genitive  in  ipis  : 

princeps,  prince,  principis, 

Note.— But  auceps,  aucupis,  fowler.    Other  nouns  in  ps  retain  the  stem-vowel 
unchanged ;  merops,  meropia,  bee-eater.    Gryps,  griffin,  has  gryphis, 

90.  Nouns  in  s  after  1,  n,  or  r :        Gen.  in  tis :        Stem  in  ti : 

puis,  Iroth,  pultis,  pulti. 

mens,  mind,  mentis,  menti.^ 

ars,  art,  artis,  arti. 

'NcyTR.—Frona,  frondia,  leaf;  gldiia,  glandia,  acorn;  jit gldns,  juglandia,  walnut; 
see  64,  2. 

ly.  Nouns  ending  in  X. 

9 1 .  Nouns  in  ax :  Genitive  in  acis :  Stem  in  5c  : 

pax,  peace,  pacis,  pSc. 

"Note.— Fax,  facia,  torch;  so  also  a  few  Greek  nouns.    Aatyanax,  actia;  so  a  few 
Greek  names  of  men. 

92.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  ecis  or  egis :  Stem  in  ec,  eg : 

1.  ecis: — dlex,  pickle;  vervex,  wether. 

2.  egis  : — lex,  law ;  rex,  king,  and  their  compounds. 

93.  Nouns  in  ex :  Genitive  in  icis :  Stem  in  ic,  ec : 

judex,  judge,  judicis,  judic,  ec. 

Exceptions. — Genitive  in 

1.  ecis  : — nex,  murder;  fenisex,  mower;  {prex),  precis,  prayer. 

2.  egis : — -p'ex,  flock ;  aquilcx,  water-inspector. 

8.  igis: — remex,  remigis,  rower;  see  24,  1. 

'NoTE.—Faex,  /aecis,  lees ;  aenex,  aenis,  old  man  (66) ;  aupeUex,  aupellectilia, 
ftirniture. 

94.  Nouns  in  ix :         Genitive  in  icis : 

radix,  root,  radlcis, 


Stem  in  ic : 
radio. 


1  These  are  of  Greek  origin ;  a  few  of  them  have  ydia:  chlamya,  chlamydia,  cloak. 

^  Dissyllables  have  the  stem  in  b. 

*  Dissyllables  in  na  have  the  stem  in  t. 


t '  ■' 


■r  ■ 


46 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


95.  Nouns  in  ix :         Genitive  in  icis :        Stem  in  ic  : 

calix,  cup^  calicis,  calic. 

Note. — Kix^  nivis  (66),  snow;  strix^  strigis^  screech-owl;  a  few  Gallic  names  also 
have  the  Genitive  in  igis :  Dumnorix^  Orgetorix. 

96.  Nouns  in  ox  or  ox :  vOx^  vOcis,  voice ;  nox,  noctis^  night. 

Note.— There  are  also  a  few  national  names  in  ox,  Gen.  in  ocis  or  ogris  :  Cappa- 
dox^  Cappadooia ;  Allobrox^  Allohrogia. 

97.  Nouns  in  ux ;        Genitive  in  ucis  ;        Stem  in  uc : 

dux,  leader^  ducis,  due. 

Note  l.—Liix^  liicis,  light;  Pollux,  Pollucia,  ToMt;  frux^frugis,  fruit. 

Note  2. — Greek  nouns  in  ^  and  yx  are  variously  declined:  Eryx,  Erycis,  Eryx; 
bomb^,  bomb^gis,  silkworm;  JStyx,  Stygis,  Styx;  coccyx,  coccJ/gis,  cuckoo;  onyx, 
onychia,  onyx. 

98.  Nouns  in  X  after  n  or  r :         Genitive  in  cis  :         Stem  in  ci : 

arx,  citadel^  arcis,  arci. 

Note  1. — Conjunx  or  conjux,  conjugis,  spouse. 

Note  2.— Most  nouns  in  x  preceded  by  ti  are-  of  Greek  origin  :  lynx,  lyncis,  lynx; 
phalanx,  phalangia,  phalanx.  ^ 

GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 

99.  Nouns  in  the  third  declension  ending  in 

6,  or,  OS,  er,  and  in  es  and  es  increasing  in  the  Genitive y^ 

are  masculine :  sermo,  discourse;  dolor,  pain;  moSy  custom; 
agger,  mound  ;  pes,  Genitive  pedis,  foot. 

/      1 00.  Nouns  in  O  are  masculine,  except  the  Feminines^  viz.  : 

1.  Nouns  in  6,  Gen.  iniSy  except  cardb,  ordo,  turhby  masc,  cupidb  and 

margb,  masc.  or  fern. 

2.  Carby  flesh,  andJLhfiLGreek  A  r0pteh5,  echo. 

3.  Most  abstract  and  colleWy^\flouns  in  16;  ratib^  reason;  contib^  an 

assembly.  ^ 

y\0\.  Nouns  in  OR  are  masculine,  except — 

1.   The  Feminme : — arJor,  tree. 
^    2.   The  Neuters: — a(/or,  spelt;  ac^-wor,  sea;  cor,  heart;  mi'«rmor,  marble. 

1 02.  Nouns  in  QS  are  masculine,  except — 

1.  The  Feminines : — arhos,  tree ;  co5,  whetstone ;  .dOs^  dowry  ;  gJs,  dawn. 

2.  TJie  Neuter: — 05,  mouth.^  ,^^^  ■ 

Note.— 6>»,  bone,  and  a  few  Greek  words  in  oa  are  n^ler:  chaos,  chaos. 

103.  Nouns  in  ER  are  masculine,  except- 


/- 


»  That  is,  having  more  syllables  In  the  Genitive  than  in  the  Nominative. 


i 

I 


ii 


GENDER  IN  THIRD  DECLENSION. 


4a-. 


/ 


\ 


/^ 


1.  The  Feminine: — linter,  boat  (sometimes  masc). 

2.  TJie  Neuters: — (1)  cadaver ^  corpse;  iter^  way;  tuber ^  tumor;  uher^ 
udder ;  ver,  spring  ;  verher^  scourge ;— /(2)  botanical  names  in  er, 

/  Gen.  eris :  acer,  maple-tree  ;  pdpdver^  poppy^) 

104.  Nouns  in  ES  and  ES  increasing  in  the  Genitive  are  masculine, 
except — 

1.  The  Feminines: — com/)es,^etter ;  merce5,^reward ;  merges,  sheaf; 
quids,  rest  (with  its  compounds) ;  seges,  crop ;  teges,  mat ;  some- 
time3?r/e5,^ird,  and  quadrupes,  ^adrupecl.  ^^ 

2.  The  Neuter : — acs^^pper.  ^^ . 

105.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

as,  as,  is,  ys,  x,  in  es  not  increasing  in  the  Genitiveyani 

in  s  preceded  ly  a  consonant, 

are  feminine :  *  aetds,  age ;  ndvis,  ship  ;  chlamys,  cloak ; 
pax,  peace ;  nUbes,  cloud ;  itrls,  city. 

1 06.  Nouns  in  AS  and  AS  are  feminine,  except-?-" 

1.  I^he  Masculines : — as,  an  as  (a  coin),  vas,  surety,  and  Greek  nouns  in 

as.  Gen.  antis,  \ 

2.  TJie  Neuters : — vds,  vessel;  and  Greek  nouns  in  as,  Gen.  atis.  ) 

1 07.  Nouns  in  IS  and  YS  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1.  Nouns  in  alls,  oUis,  cis,  mis,  nis,  guis,  quis:  natdlis,  birthday; 

ignis,  fire ;  sanguis,  blood.     But  a  few  of  these  are  occasionally 
feminine :  cariis,  amnis,  cinis,  finis,  anguis,  torquis, 

2.  Axis,  axle  ;   bu7ns,  plough-tail  ;  callis,  path  ;  ^  ensis,  sword ;  lapis, 

stone ;  mensis,  month  ;  orhis,  circle  ;  postis,  post ;  pulvis,  dust ; 
sentis,  brier ;  torris,  brand ;  vectis,  lever  ;  and  a  few  others. 

3.  Names  of  mountains  in  ys ;  Othrys, 

1 08.  Nouns  in  X  are  feminine,  except  the  Masculines,  viz. : 
(1.  Greek  masculines  :  corax,  raven ;  thordx,  cuirass^ 

2.  Nouns  in  ex  and  unx ;  except  the  feminines :  /aex,/or/ex,  nex,  (prex\ 

supellex,   K^Qy^y 
8.  Calix,  cup ;  /or7iix,/arch  ;  phoenix,  phoenix ;  trddux,  vine-layer,  and 

a  few  nouns  in  yx. 

4.  Sometimes :  calx,  heel ;  calx,  lime  ;  lynx,  lynx. 

-         *** 

109.  Nouns  in  ES  not  increasing.1n  the  Genitive  are  feminine,  except 

the  Masculines,  viz. : 

1  Nouns  whose  gender  is  determined  by  Signification  (43)  may  be  exceptions  to 
these  rules  for  gender  as  determined  by  Endings.    Gallic  is  sometimes  feminine. 


rt. 


cy 


48 


FOURTH  DECLENSIOK 


AclnacdSy  cimeter ;  sometimes  palumbeSy  dove ;  and  vepres^  thwii-bush. 
Note. — For  Greek  nouns  in  e«,  see  111,  note. 

110.  Nouns  in  S  preceded  by  a  Consonant  are  feminine,  except  the 
Masculines^  viz. : 

1.  DenSy  tooth ;  fonSy  fountain ;  monSy  mountain  ;  ponSy  bridge ;  gener- 

ally adepSy  fat,  and  rudenSy  cable. 

2.  Some  nouns  in  ns,  originally  adjectives  or  participles  with  a  mascu- 

line noun  understood  :  oriens  (sol),  east ;  confluens  (amnis),  con- 
fluence ;  tridens  (raster),  trident ;  quadrdns  (as),  quarter. 

3.  ChalyhSy  steel ;  hydropSy  dropsy,  and  a  few  other  Greek  words. 

4.  Sometimes :  forcepSy  forceps  ;  serpenSy  serpent ;  stirpSy  stock.     Ani- 

mdnSy  animal,  is  masculine,  feminine,  or  neuter. 

111.  Nouns  of  the  third  declension  ending  in 

a,  6,  1,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar,  ar,  ur,  us,  and  us 

are  neuter :  *  poema,  poem ;  marey  sea ;  lac,  milk ;  animal, 
animal ;  carmen,  song ;  caput,  head  ;  corpus,  body. 

Note.— A  few  Greek  nouns  In  es  are  also  neuter :  cacoetheSy  desire,  passion. 

112.  Nouns  in  L,  AR,  and  AR  are  neuter,  except  the  MascuUncSy  viz. ; 
Mugily  mullet ;  saly^  salt ;  soly  sun ;  laVy  hearth  ;  salary  trout.. 

113.  Nouns  in  N  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines: — pecteUy    comb;   reUy   kidney;   lieny   spleen;   and 

Greek  masculines  in  an,  en,  in,  on  :  paedny  paean ;  canoUy  rule. 

2.  The  Feminines : — aedoUy  nightingale  ;   alcyon  {halcyon)y  kingfisher ; 

Icony  image ;  sindony  muslin. 

114.  Nouns  in  UR  are  neuter,  except  the  MascuUneSy  viz. : 
Furfur y  bran ;  turtury  turtle-dove ;  vuliury  vulture. 

115.  Nouns  in  US  and  US  are  neuter,  except — 

1.  The  Masculines : — lepuSy  hare ;  muSy  mouse ;  and  Greek  nouns  in  pus. 

2.  The  Fenpnincs : — telluSy  earth ;  frauSy  fraud ;  lauSy  praise ;  and  nouns 

in  us.  Gen.  utis  or  udis :  virtuSy  virtue ;  paluSy  marsh. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION  :    U  NOUNS. 

116.  Nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  end  in 

us — masculine;  u — neuter.      > 
They  are  declined  as  follows  : 


i.il 


I 

* 

r 


FOURTH  DECLENSION. 


49 


1  See  foot-note,  page  47.    /Sa/  Is  sometimes  neuter  in  the  singular. 


Fructus,  fruit,     Cornu,  horn. 


Nora,  fructus  . 
Gen,    fructus 
Bat,    f  ructui,  €l  * 
Ace,    fructmn 
Voc,     fructirs 
Ahl,     fructil 

NoY)x,  fructlis 
Gen.    fructiium 
Dat,    fructil>iis 
Ace,     fructiis 
Voc.     fructiis 
Ahl.    fructibiis 


SINGULAR.         Case-Endings. 


cornuL  ^ 

cornfiis 

cornft 

cornfl 

cornii 

cornQ. 

PLURAL. 

cornua. 
cornuuiu 

corniI>iis 
corniin« 
corniia; 
corni1>us 


us 

us 

ui,  u* 

uffi 

us'        »  * 

u 

us 

uum 

ibus  (ubus) 

us 

Gs 

ibus  (ubus) 


u 

tis 

a 

ti 
11 

a 

ua 

uum 

ibus  (ubus) 

ua 

ua 

ibus  (ubus) 


1.  The  Stem  in  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension  ends  in  u :  fruciUy  cornu. 

2.  The  Case-Endings  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  u,  weakened 
to  i  in  ihusy  but  retained  in  ubus  ;  see  22. 

117.  The  following  Irregular  Case-Endings  occur :  * 

1.  Ubus  for  ibus  in  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural— 

1)  Eegularly  in  acusy  needle ;  arcuSy  bow ;  and  tHhiSy  tribe. 

2)  Often  in  aHuSy^  joint;   lacuSy  lake;  partusy  birth;  partus,  harbor- 
specuSy  cave ;  and  verity  spit.  '  ' 

3)  Occasionally  in  a  few  other  words,  as  genuy  knee  ;  tonitrusy  thunder,  etc. 

2.  Uis,  the  uncontracted  form  for  uSy  in  the  Genitive :  fructuis  for 
fructus.^ 

3.  Uos,  an  old  form  ^  of  the  Genitive  ending :  senatuoSy^  of  the  senate. 

118.  Nouns  in  us  are  masculine,  those  in  u  are  neuter,  but  the  fol- 


lowing  in  us  are — 


*  Thus  ul  Is  c^Jatc^cted  into  u :  fructul,  fructu.  , 
h  To  these^hould  be  added  the  rare  endings  ud  for  u  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  uus  for  vs  in 

the  Gen.  Sing.,  anduus  for  m  in  the  Nom.,  Ace.,  and  Voc.  PI.  See  Wordsworth,  pp.  CO-62. 
3  Generally  plujsj,  limbs. 

*  It  has  been  already  mentioned  (47,  note  1)  that  the  five  declensions  are  only  five 
varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection.  The  close  relationship  between  the  third 
declension  and  the  fourth  will  be  seen  by  comparing  the  declension  of  fructus,  a  w-noun 
of  the  fourth,  with  that  of  grHs  (66,  2),  a  u-noun  of  the  third.  In  fact,  if  the  old  Geni- 
tive ending  uis  had  not  been  contracted  into  vs,  there  would  have  been  no  fourth  de- 
clension whatever.     All  w-nouns  would  have  belonged  to  the  third  declension. 

»  Compare  the  Greek  Genitive  in  vo?  :  ix^v^,  ix^v.oi,  fish. 

*  This  was  first  weakened  to  ^emtuis  (32),  ahd  then  contracted  to  eendtus  (23f  2) 
the  fclassical  form.  ' 


'iS:, 


50 


FIFTH  DECLENSIOK 


FIFTH  DECLENSIOK 


\ 


4 


* 


\ 


o 


Feminine  BY  Exception : — (1)  acus^  needle;  cote,  distaff;  £?owm5,  house ; 
mantis^  hand;  portlcus^  portico;  trihus,  tribe; — (2)  Idus^  Ides; 
Qulnqudtrus^  feast  of  Minerva ;  generally  penvs^  store,  when  of 
this  declension  ;  rarely  specus^  den  ; — (3)  see  43,  II. 

Note. — The  only  neuter  nouns  in  common  use  arc  corm'i^  genii^  and  ceruA 

119.  Second  and  Fourth  Declensions. — Some  nouns  are  partly  of 
the  fourth  declension  and  partly  of  the  second. 

1.  Domus,  F.,  house,  has  a  Locative  form  domt^  at  home,  and  is  other- 
wise declined  as  follows  :  * 


SINGULAR. 

JVom.  domus 

Gen,  domus 

Dat  domui  (domo) 

Ace.  domum 

Voc.  domus 

Abl.  domo  (domu) 


PLURAL. 

domus 

domuum,  domorum 

domibus 

domos,  domus 

domus 

domibus 


2.  Certain  names  of  trees  in  ns,  as  cupressus^ficus,  lauriis^  pfltius^  though 
generally  of  Decl.  II.,  sometimes  take  those  cases  of  the  fourth  which  end  in 
U8^  iiSy  and  u :  N.  laurus,  G.  laurus^  D.  laiiro^  A.  laurum^  V.  laurus^  A.  lauru^ 
etc.     So  also  colus^  distaff. 

3.  A  few  nouns,  especially  sendtu^^  senate,  and  tumidtus^  tumult,  though 
regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  sometimes  take  the  Genitive  ending  I  of  the  second ; 
sendtl^  tumultl. 

4.  Quercus^  oak,  regularly  of  Decl.  IV.,  has  quercorum  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 

FIFTH   DECLENSION:   E   NOUNS. 

120.  Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  end  in  es—femininey 
and  are  declined  as  follows  : 


Dies,  day. 


Res,  thing. 


SINGULAR. 

CA8E-EnDING8. 

NoJn. 

dies 

res 

es 

Ge7i. 

dlfel  or  die 

rel  or  re 

el,  e 

Bat. 

diei  or  die 

rel  or  re 

V-       - 

ei,  e 

Ace. 

diem 

rem 

em 

Voc. 

dies 

res 

es 

Abl 

die 

re 

e 

1  But  neuter  forms  occur  in  certain  cases  of  other  words.  Thus,  Bat.  pecui^  Abl. 
pecii^  Nom.'  Ace,  and  Voc.  PI.  pecua^  from  obsolete  pecii^  cattle ;  also  artua  from 
art2i8 ;  ossua  from  obsolete  ossu^  bone ;  specua  from  specns. 

2  Combining  forms  of  the  second  declension  with  those  of  the  fourth. 


61 


I^om.  dies 
Gen.    dierum 
Dai.     dietous 
Ace.    dies 
Voc.     dies 
Abl.     diebus 


PLURAL. 

res 

rerum 

rei>us 

res 
res 
rei^iis 


Case-Eitdings. 

es 

erum 

ebus 

es 

es 

ebus 


1.  The  Stem  of  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  ends  in  e  :  die,  re.^ 

2.  The  Case-Endings  here  given  contain  the  characteristic  §,  which  ap- 
pears  in  all  the  cases.  It  is  shortened  (1)  generally  in  the  ending  |J,  when 
preceded  by  a  consonant,  and  (2)  regularly  in  the  ending  em. 

NoTE.-Trace8  of  a  Locative  in  e  are  preserved  in  certain  phrases  found  in  early 
Latin,  as  die  septimt,  on  the  seventh  day;  die  crastinl,  on  the  morrow;  dUproximl 
on  the  next  day.    Cotldie,  hodie,  pridii,  and  the  like  are  doubtless  Locatives  in  origin. ' 

121.  Irregular  Case-Endings. — The  following  occur  : 

\.  I  or  ei  for  U  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat.:  acii  for  aciei,  of  sharpness; 
did  fo£  dlei ;  ret  for  ret ;  pcrnicii  for  perniciel,  of  destruction. 

2.  Es  in  the  Gen.  in  early  Latin :  dies,  of  a  day ;  rabies,  of  madness. 

1 22.  DEFECTivE.--Nouns  of  this  declension  want  the  plural,  except  «-— 

1.  Dies  and  res,  complete  in  all  their  parts. 

2.  Acies,  sharpness ;  ejiffies,  image  ;  fades,  face ;  series,  series ;  species,  ap- 
pearance ;  spes,^  hope,  used  in  the  Sing.,  and  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Voc.  Plur. 

3.  Muvies,  used  in  the  Sing,  and  in  the  Nom.  Plur.,  and  fflacOs  in  the 
Sing,  and  in  the  Ace.  Plur. 

123.  GENDER.—Nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  are  feminine— 

Except  dies,  day,  and  meridies,  midday,  masculine,  though  dies  is  some- 
times feminine  in  the  singular,  especially  when  it  means  time. 

124.  General  Table  of  Gender. 

I.  Gender  independent  of  ending.*    Common  to  all  de- 
clensions. 


»  Originally  most  e-stems  appear  to  have  been  either  a-stems  or  ^-sterns.  Thus:  1) 
Most  stems  in  ie  are  modified  from  id:  materia,  materia,  Nom.  mateHe-s,  material; 
see  25, 1,  note,  with  foot-note  6.  In  this  class  of  words  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  Sing,  are 
formed  from  the  stem  in  ia,  not  from  that  in  ies:  materiae,  not  materiel.  2)  Dies 
fdes,  plebes,  and  spes  appear  to  have  been  «-stems,  modified  to  c-stems,  as  many 
«-stems  in  the  third  declension  were  modified  Xo  i-stems;  see  63,  L,  1,  foot-note. 

2  A  few  plural  forms  in  addition  to  those  here  given  are  sometimes  cited,  but  seem 
not  to  occur  in  writers  of  the  classical  period. 

3  In  early  Latin  ^eres  occurs  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace.  Plur.,  formed  from  ^U  treated 
as  a  stem  in  s.    Thus :  spes,  speses,  speres  (31, 1). 

*  For  exceptions,  see  43. 


53 

Masculine. 
Names  of  Males,  of 
Rivers,  Winds,  and 
Months. 


COMPOUND  NOUNS, 


Feminine. 
Names   of   Females,   of 
Countries,  Towns,  Isl- 
ands, and  Trees. 


Neuter. 
Indeclinable  Nouns,'  In- 
finitives, and  Clauses 
v^cd  as  Nouns, 


11.  Gender  determined  by  Nominative  ending." 

Declension  I. 

Feminine.  Neuter. 

a,  e. 

Declension  II. 


Masculine. 

as,  es. 


er,  ir,  us,  os,  5s.     I 

6,  or,  OS,  er,  es  and 

es  inci'easing  in  the 
Genitive. 


Declension  III. 

is,  ys,  x,(ej  and 

not  increasing  in  the 
Genitive^  s  preceded  by 
a  co7isonant. 


I  um,  on. 

a,  e,  I,  y,  c,  1,  n,  t,  ar, 
ar,  ur,  us,  us. 


Declension  IV. 
us.  I  I  & 

Declension  V. 
I  es.  I 

COMPOUND    NOUNS. 

125.  Compounds  present  in  general  no  peculiarities  of  declension. 
But— 

1.  If  two  nominatives  unite,  they  are  both  declined :  ^  respublica  =  r^spuh- 
lica^  republic,  the  public  thing ;  jusjurandum  =jmjurandum^  oath. 

2.  If  a  nominative  unites  with  an  oblique  case,  only  the  nominative  is 
declined :  3  pater/amilids  =  pater /amilids  (49, 1),  or  pater  familiae^  the  father 
of  a  family. 


126.  Paradigms. 

Nam,  respublica 
Gen,    reipublicae 
Dat,    reipublicae 
Ace.    rempublicam 
Vac,     respublica 
Abl,    republic^ 


SINGULAR. 

jusjurandum 

jurisjurandi 

jurljurando 

jusjurandum 

jusjurandum 

jurejurando 


paterfamilias 

patrisfamilias 

patrifamilias 

patremfamilias 

paterfamilias 

patrefamilias 


*  Except  names  of  persons. 

^  For  exceptions,  see  under  the  several  declensions. 

3  Words  thus  formed,  however,  are  not  compounds  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term ; 
see  340, 1.,  note. 


I 

tl 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


53 


Nam,  respublicae 
Gen,   r^rumpublicarura 
Dat,    rebuspublicis 
Ace,    respublicas 
Voc,    respublicae 
Ahl,    rebuspublicis 


PLURAL. 

iurajuranda 


jurajuranda 
iurajuranda 


patresfamilias 

patrumfamilias 

patribusfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patresfamilias 

patribusfamilias 


Note  1.— The  parts  which  compose  these  and  similar  words  are  often  and  perhaps 

more  correctly  written  separately :  respublica;  paterfamilias  or /amiliae. 

Note  "i— Paterfamilias  sometimes  has  familiarum in  the  plural :  patresfamili' 
drum. 

IRREGULAR    NOUNS. 

127.  Irregular  nouns  may  be  divided  into  four  classes: 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns  have  but  one  form  for  all  cases. 

II.  Defective  Nouns  want  certain  parts. 

III.  Heteroclites  {lieteroclita^)  are  partly  of  one  declension  and  partly 
of  another. 

IV.  Heterogeneous  Nouns  {hcterogenea^)  are  partly  of  one  gender  and 
partly  of  another. 

I.  Indeclinable  Nouns. 

1 28.  The  Latin  has  but  few  indeclinable  nouns.  The  following  are 
the  most  important : 

1.  The  letters  of  the  alphabet,  a,  h,  c,  alplia^  beta,  etc. 

2.  Foreign  words :  Jdcob^  Uiberl ;  though  foreign  words  often  are  declined. 

II.  Defectfv^e  ISTOUNS. 

129.  Nouns  may  be  defective  in  Number,  in  Case,  or  in  both  Number 
and  Case. 

1 30.  Plural  wanting. — Many  nouns  from  the  nature  of  their  signi- 
fication want  the  plural :  Roma,  Rome ;  justitia,  justice ;  aurum,  gold ;  fa- 
mes, hunger ;  sanguis,  blood. 

1.  The  principal  nouns  of  this  class  are : 

1)  Most  names  of  persons  and  places :  Cicero,  Roma, 

2)  Abstract  Nouns :  fides,  faith ;  justitia,  justice. 

3)  Names  of  materials :  aurum,  gold  ;  ferrtim,  iron. 

4)  A  few  others :  merldies,  midday ;  specimen,  example ;  supellex,  furni- 
ture ;  'ver,  spring ;  vespera,  evening,  etc. 

2.  Proper  names  admit  the  plural  to  designate /aw^7^^5,  classes  ;  names  of 
materials,  to  designate  pieces  of  the  material  or  articles  made  of  it ;  and  ab- 
stract nouns,  to  designate  instances,  or  hinds,  of  the  quality :  Scipiories,  the 
Sc:pics ;  aera,  vessels  of  copper ;  avdritiae,  instances  of  avarice ;  odia,  hatreds. 

3.  In  the  poets,  tha  plural  of  abstracts  occurs  in  the  sense  of  the  singular. 

1  From  €T«pos,  another,  and  KAtVt?,  inflection,  i.  e.,  of  different  declensions. 

2  From  erepoi,  another,  and  yeVo?,  gender,  i.  e.,  of  different  genders. 


54 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS, 


131.  Singular  WANTiNG.—Many  nouns  want  the  singular. 

1.  The  most  important  of  these  are : 

1)  Certain  personal  appellatives  applicable  to  classes :  wa;or^«,  forefathers ; 
posterl,  descendants ;  geminl,  twins ;  liherl,  children. 

2)  Many  names  of  cities:  Athenae,  Athens;  Thehae,  Thebes;  Delphi, 
Delphi. 

3)  Many  names  of  festivals;  Bacchandlia,  Olympia,  Sdturndlia, 

_  4)  Arma,  arms;  divitiae,  riches ;  exsequiae,  funeral  rites;  exuviae,  spoils ; 
/due,  Ides ;  indutiae,  truce ;  insidiae,  ambuscade  ;  manes,  shades  of  the  dead  ; 
minae,  threats ;  moenia,  walls ;  mu?iia,  duties ;  nupiiae,  nuptials ;  rlliquiae, 
remains. 

2.  An  individual  member  of  a  class  designated  by  these  plurals  may  be  de- 
noted by  U71US  ex  with  the  plural:  unus  ex  llberls,  one  of  the  children,  or  a  child. 

Note.— The  plural  in  naflfei^f  cities  may  have  reference  to  the  several  parts  of  the 
city,  especially  as  ancient  cities  were  often  made  up  of  separate  villages.  So  in  the  names 
of  festivals,  the  plural  may  refer  to  the  various  games  and  exercises  which  together  con- 
stituted the  festival. 

1 32.  Plural  with  Change  op  Meaning. — Some  nouns  have  one  sig- 
nification in  the  singular  and  another  in  the  plural.     Thus : 


singular. 
Aedes,  temple; 
Auxilium,  keljp  ; 
Career,  prison,  harrier  / 
Castrum,  castle,  hvt ; 
Comitium,  name  of  a  part  of  the 

Roman  forum  / 
Copia,  plenty,  force  ; 
Facultas,  ability  ; 
Finis,  end  ; 
Forttina,  fortune  / 
Gratia,  gratitude,  favor  ; 
Hortus,  garden  ; 
Im|)edimentum,  hindrance; 
Litiera,  letter  of  alphabet ; 

Ltidus,  play,  sport ; 

Mop,  custom  ; 

Naklis  (dies),  birth-day  ; 

Opei^a,  work,  service  ; 

Pars,  part ; 

KOstrum,  beak  of  ship  ; 

^'d\,  salt ; 


plural. 

ledes,  (1)  temples,  (2)  a  liouse.^ 
luxilia,  auxiliaries.  ^  ^ 

jarceres,  barriers  of  a  race-course. 
jastra,  camp, 
jomitia,  the  assembly  held  in  the  comitium, 

:5piae,  (1)  stores,  (2)  troops, 

Bcultates,  wealth,  m^eans, 

in6s,  borders,  territory. 

brtunae,  possessions,  wealth, 

ratiae,  thanks. 

orti,  {I)  gardens,  {2)  pleasure-grounds. 
'limpedimenta,  {I) hindrances,  {2)baggage. 
litterae,  (1)  letters  of  alphabet,  (2)  epistle, 

writing,  letters,  literature. 
pdi,  (1)  plays,  (2)  public  spectacle. 
mores,  manners,  character. 
hatales,  pedigree,  parentage, 
jOperae,  workmen, 

artes,  (1)  parts,  (2)  a  party. 

ostra,  (1)  beaks,  (2)  the  rostra  or  tribune 
in  Rome  (adorned  with  beaks). 

ales^  witty  sayings. 


1  Aedes  and  some  other  words  In  this  list,  it  will  be  observed,  have  in  the  plural  two 
significations,  one  corresponding  to  that  of  the  singular,  and  the  other  distinct  from  it 


HETEROCLITES, 

1 33.  Defective  in  Case. — Some  nouns  are  defective  in  case : 

1.  In  the  Nom.,  Dat.,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  ,  opis, ,  opem,  - 

help ;  ,  vicis,^ ,  vicem, ,  vice,  change. 


55 


ope, 


—,  precl,  precem, ,prece,  prayer. 

,  dapis,^  dapl,  dapem, ,  dape, 


2.  In  the  Nom.,  Gen.,  and  Voc.  Sing. :  ■ 

3.  In  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sinor. :  — 
food ;  ,  frugis,  frugi,  f rug  em, ^fruge,  fruit. 

4.  In  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. :  Most  nouns  of  the  fifth  Decl. ;  see  132. 
Note.— Many  neuters  are  also  defective  in  the  Gen.,  Dat.,  and  Abl.  Plur. :  far,  /e/, 

mel,  pus,  rus,  tus,  etc.,  especially  Greek  neuters  in  as,  which  want  these  cases  also  in 
the  singular :  epos,  meloa  ;  also  a  few  nouns  of  Decl.  IV. :  metus,  situs,  etc. 

5.  In  the  Gen.  Plur. :  many  nouns  otherwise  entire,  especially  monosylla- 
bles :  nex,  pax,  pix  ;  cor,  cos,  ros  ;  sal,  sol,  lux, 

134.  Number  and  Case. — Some  nouns  want  one  entire  number  and 
certain  cases  of  the  other.  The  following  forms  occur:  fors,  forte, 
chance ;  lues,  luem,  lue,  pestilence  ;  dicionis,  dicioni,  dicionem,  dicione,  sway. 
Fas,  right,  and  nefds,  wrong,  are  used  in  the  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Voc.  Sing. ; 
tnstar,  likeness,  nihil,  nothing,  and  opus,  need,  in  the  Nom.  and  Ace. ; 
sccus,  sex,  in  the  Ace.  only.  Many  verbal  nouns  in  u  and  a  few  other 
words  have  only  the  Ablative  Singular :  jussu,  by  order ;  manddtu,  by  com- 
mand ;  rogdiu,  by  request ;  spontc,  by  choice,  etc. 

III.  Heteroclites. 

135.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  IV.  are  a  few  nouns  in  ms  ;  see  119. 

1 36.  Of  Declensions  II.  and  III.  are — 

1.  Jugerum,  an  acre;  generally  of  the  second  Decl.  in  the  Sing.,  and  of 
the  third  in  the  Plur. :  jugerum,  jugerl;  plmsil,jugera,  Jugerum,  jugeribus. 

2.  Vds,  a  vessel ;  of  the  third  Decl.  in  the  Sing,  and  of  the  second  in  the 
Plur. :  vds,  vdsis  ;  plural,  vdsa,  vdsorum, 

S,  Plural  names  of  festivals  in  alia:  BaccJidndlia,  Sdturndlia;  which  are 
regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  but  sometimes  fonn  the  Gen.  Plur.  in  drum  of 
the  second.    Anclle,  a  shield,  and  a  few  other  words  have  the  same  peculiarity. 

137.  Of  Declensions  III.  and  V.  are — 

1.  Requies,  rest;  which  is  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  b?jt  also  takes  the 
forms  requiem  and  requie  of  the  fifth. 

2.  Fames,  hunger;  regularly  of  the  third  Decl.,  except  in  the  Ablative, 
famie,  of  the  fifth  {not  fame,  of  the  third). 

1 38.  Forms  in  ia  and  ies. — Many  words  of  four  syllables  have  one 
form  in  ia  of  Decl.  I.,  and  one  in  ies  of  Decl.  V. :  luxuria,  luxuries,  lux- 
ury ;  materia,  mdteries,  material. 

1 39.  Forms  in  us  and  um. — Many  nouns  derived  from  verbs  have  one 
form  in  us  of  Decl.  IV.,  and  one  in  um  of  Decl.  II. :  condtus,  condium, 
attempt ;  eventus,  evcntum,  event. 

*  Defective  also  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 


I, 


56 


ADJECTIVES, 


140.  Many  words  which  have  but  one  approved  form  in  prose,  admit 
another  in  poetry :  juventus  (utis),  youth ;  poetic,  juventa  (ae) :  senectus 
(utis),  old  age;  poetic,  scnecta  (ae) :  paupcrtas  (atis),  poverty;  poetic, 
pauperies  (ei). 

IV.  Heterogeneous  Nouns. 

141.  Masculine  and  Neuter.— Some  masculines  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 

Jocus^  m.,  jest ;  plural,>a,  m.Joca,  n. 

Locus^  m.,  place ;  plural,  locl^  m.,  topics,  loca^  n.,  places. 

142.  Feminine,  AND  Neuter.— Some /jwwmWs  take  in  the  plural  an 
additional  form  of  the  neuter  gender : 


Carhasus^  f.,  linen; 
MargaHta^  f.,  pearl ; 
Ostrea^  f.,  oyster; 


plural,  carhasl^  f.,  carbasa^  i^. 
plural,  margarltae^i.^  margarita^  n. 
plural,  ostreae^  f,*  ostrecu^jp.. 

143.  Neuter  AND  Masculine  or  Feminine.— Some  wei^^^-s. take  in  the 
plural  a  different  gender.     Thus ;  ^' 

1.  Some  neuters  become  maBmline  in  the  plural : 

Caelum^  n.,  heaven ;  plural,  caell^  m.  '      ' 

2.  Some  neuters  generally  become  masculine  in  the  plural,  but  sometimes 
remain  neuter  : 

Frenum,  n.,  bridle ;  plural,  frenl,  m.,  frena,  n. 

Bdstrum^  n.,  rake ;  plural,  rdstrl,  m.,  rdstra^  n. 

3.  Some  neuters  become  feminine  in  the  plural : 

Epulum^  n.,  feast ;  plural,  epulae,  f. 

144.  Forms  in  us  and  um.— Some  nouns  of  the  second  declension 
have  one  form  in  m  masculine,  and  one  in  um  neuter :  clipeus,  clipeum^ 
shield ;  commcntarius^  commentarium,  commentary. 

145.  Heterogeneous  Heteroclites.— Some  heteroclites  are  also  hete- 
rogeneous :  conatus  (us),  conaium  (I),  effort ;  mcnda  (ae),  mendum  (I),  fault. 


CHAPTER  II.  . 

ADJECTIVES. 

146.  The  adjective  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used 
to  qualify  nouns  :  tonus,  good ;  mdgnus,  great. 

Note.— The  .form  of  the  adjective  in  Latin  depends  in  part  upon  the  gender  of  the 
noun  which  it  qualifies:  &owi^i)i/^r,  a  good  boy;  &o;ia p«eZ/a,  a  good  girl ;  homim  tern- 
plum,  a  good  temple.  Thus,  in  the  Norn.  Sing.,  lionus  is  the  form  of  the  adjective  when 
used  with  masculine  nouns,  hona  with  feminine,  and  bonum  with  neuter. 


ADJECTIVES, 


57 


147.  Some  adjectives  are  partly  of  the  first  declension 
and  partly  of  the  second,  while  all  the  rest  are  entirely  of 
the  third  declension. 

First  and  Second  Declensions  :  A  and  O  Stems. 


^      ^-^V^J  g             .A.^  V.^A.A^A>^«           \^    \^  V^  WV  • 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  bonus 

bona. 

bonum 

Gen,    boni 

bona-c 

boni 

Dat.     bono 

bonae 

bono 

Ace,    bonum 

jbonaiu 

bonum 

Voc,    bone 

bona. 

bonum 

Abl.    bono 

bona 

PLURAL. 

bono 

Nom.  bonI 

bonae 

bona 

Gen,    bonorum 

bonarum 

bonorum 

Dat.    bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

Ace.    bonos 

bonas 

bona 

Voc.    boni 

bonae 

bona 

Ahl.     bonis 

bonis 

bonis 

149.  Liber, /r^e.^ 

SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  liber 

libera, 

libcrum 

Gen.    llberi 

liberae 

llberi 

Dat.    libero 

liberae 

libero 

Ace.    llberum 

llberam. 

liberum 

Voc,    liber 

libera 

llberuiii. 

Ahl.     llberO 

libera 

libero 

PLURAL. 

» 

Nom.  liberl 

liberae 

jllbera 

Gen.    liberorum 

liberaruiu 

liberorum 

Dat.    llberis 

'  llberis 

llberis 

Ace,    liberos 

llberas 

libera 

Voc.    llberi 

liberae 

libera 

Ahl.    llberls 

llberis 

llberis 

1  Bonus  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  Tike  serv^is  of  Decl.  II.  (51),  in  the  Fem.  like  mema 
of  Decl.  I.  (48),  and  in  the  Nent.  like  templum  of  Decl.  II.  (51).  The  steins  are  bono 
in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  bond  in  the  Fem. 

9  LiBEB  is  declined  in  the  Masc.  like  puer  (51),  and  in  the  Fem.  and  Neut.  like  bonus. 


58 


ADJECTIVES. 


ADJECTIVES, 


59 


150.  Aeger,  sick,^ 


SINGULAR. 

1 

Masc. 

Fkm. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

aeger 

aegra 

aegram 

Gen. 

aegri 

aegra-c 

aegrl 

Dat. 

aegro 

aegrae 

aegrO 

Ace. 

aegmiit 

aegram 

aegmm 

Voc. 

aeger 

aegra 

aegrum 

Abl, 

aegrO     \ 

aegra 

aegrO 

PLURAL. 

1 

Nom. 

aegrl 

aegrae 

aegra 

Gen, 

aegrOrum 

aegraruiu 

aegrorum 

Dat. 

aegrls 

aegrls 

aegrls 

Ace. 

aegrOs 

aegras 

aegra 

Voc. 

aegrl 

aegrae 

aegra 

Abl, 

aegrls 

aegrls 

aegrls 

Note. — Most  adjectives  in  er  are  declined  like  aeger^  but  the  following  in 
er  and  nr  are  declined  like  liber  : 

1)  Asper^  rough ;  lacer^  torn  ;  raiser^  wretched ;  prosper,  prosperous  ;  tener^ 
tender ;  but  asper  sometimes  drops  the  e^  and  dexter^  right,  sometimes  retains 
it :  dexter^  dextera,  or  dextra, 

2)  Satur^  sated  ;  satur,  satura^  saturum, 

8)  Compounds  infer  and  ger :  mortifer^  deadly  ;  dliger,  winged. 

151.  Irregulakities. — Nine  adjectives  have  in  the 
singular  ius  ^  in  the  Genitive  and  i  in  the  Dative,  and  are 
declined  as  follows  : 


Alius, 

another. 

SINGULAR. 

Solus, 

alone. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

JVdm, 

alius  3 

alia 

aliuds 

solus 

sola 

solum 

Gen, 

alius 

.   alius 

alius  * 

solius 

solius 

solius 

Dat. 

alii 

alii 

alii 

soli 

soli 

soli 

Ace. 

alium 

aliam 

aliud 

solum , 

85lam 

solum 

Voc. 

sole 

sola 

solum 

Abl. 

alio 

alia 

alio 

solo 

sola 

solo 

I  Aeger  is  declined  in  the  masculine  like  ager  (51),  and  in  the  feminine  and  neuter 

like  bonus. 

'^  I  in  Ius  is  often  shortened  by  the  poets;  regularly  so  in  aZ^mwg  in  dactylic  verse 

(ft09). 

3  Rarely  altis  and  alid.    The  same  stem  appears  in  ali-quis  (190,  2),  some  one; 
ali-ter^  otherwise. 

*  For  alilus  by  contraction.    AUerlus  often  supplies  the  place  of  alius. 


U 


Nom. 

alii 

aliae 

alia 

soli 

solae 

Gen. 

aliorum 

aliarum 

aliorum 

solorum 

solarum 

Dat, 

aliis 

aliis 

aliis 

soils 

soils 

Ace, 

alios 

alias 

alia 

solos 

solas 

Voc, 

soli 

solae 

Abl, 

aliis 

aliis 

aliis 

soils 

soils 

PLURAL. 

sola 

solorum 

soils 

sola 

sola 

soils 

1.  These  nine  adjectives  are :  alius.^  a,  wo?,  another ;  nullus^  a,  -wm,  no  one ; 
solus^  alone ;  totus^  whole ;  ullvs^  any ;  unus^^  one ;  alter,  •4era,  -terum^  the 
other  3;  'uter,  -tra,  -trum,'^  which  ((^f  ^wo)  \  neuter .^  -tra,  -trum,*  neither. 

Note  1. — The  regular  forms  occasionally  occur  in  the  Gen.  and  Dat.  of  some  of  these 
adjectives.  . 

Note  2.— Like  uter  are  declined  its  compounds :  Uterque^  utervls^  uterlibet^  uter- 
cunque.  In  alter  uter  sometimes  jDi^h  parts  are  declined,  as  alterlus  utrlus;  and 
sometimes  only  the  latter,  as  alterutrlus.  i 

Thikd  Declension  :   Consonant  and  I   Stems. 

152.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes  : 

I.  Those  which  have  in  the  Nominative  Singular  three 
different  forms — one  for  each  gender. 

II.  Those  which  have  two  forms — the  masculine  and 
feminine  being  the  same. 

III.  Those  which  have  but  one  form — the  same  for  all 
genders. 

153.  Adjectives  of  Three  Endings  in  this  declension 
have  the  stem  in  i,  and  are  declined  as  follows  : 

Acer,  sharp, ^ 

Nkttt. 
acre 

acris 

at?rl 

acre 

acre 

acrl 


— ^ — ,  J- , 

SINGULAR. 

Maso. 

Fem. 

Nom. 

acer* 

acris 

Gen. 

acris 

acris 

Dat. 

acrl 

acrl 

Ace. 

acrem 

acrem 

Voc. 

acer 

acris 

Abl, 

acrl 

acrl 

*  See  declension,  1 75. 

2  Gen.  alterlus^  Dat.  alterl ;  otherwise  declined  like  liber  (149). 

3  Or  one  of  two,  the  one. 

*  Gen.  utrlus,  Dat.  utrl;  otherwise  like  aeger  (150).    Neuter  like  uter. 

*  Acer  is  declined  hke  ignis  in  the  Masc.  and  Fem.,  and  like  mare  (6»)  in  the  Neut, 
except  in  the  Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing.,  Masc,  and  in  the  Abl.  Sing. 

«  These  forms  in  er  are  like  those  in  er  of  Decl.  II.  in  dropping  the  ending  in  the 
Nom.  and  Voc.  Sing,  and  in  developing  final  r  into  er:  deer  for  acris,  stem,  acri. 


60 


MA8G. 

Norn,  acr^s 
Gen,    acrimn 
Bat.     acril>iis 
Ace,    acr€s,  Is 
Voc.    acrCs 


ADJECTIVES. 

PLURAL. 

Fem. 
acr€s 
acrium 
acrit>us 
acrSs,  Is 
acrCs 
acri1>iis 


ADJECTIVES, 


61 


Neut. 
acria. 
Hcriuiii 
acribiis 
acria. 
acria. 
acri1>iis 


Ahl.     acribiis 

Note  1.— Like  Acer  are  declined : 

1)  Alacer.  lively;  campester,  level;  celeher,  famous;  C6?er,i  gwift;  equester,  eques- 
trian; i?a^^7^^er,  marshy;  pedeeter,  pedestrian;  puter,  putrid;  «aZf/fter,  healthful;  m^l- 
tester,  woody ;  ierreater,  terrestrial ;  volucer,  winged. 

2)  Adjectives  in  er  designating  the  months  :  October,  hris.'^ 

Note  2. -In  the  poets  and  in  early  Latin  the  form  in  er,  as  deer,  is  sometimes  femi- 
nine, and  the  form  in  is,  as  aeris,  is  sometimes  masculine. 

154.  Adjectives  of  Two  Endings  are  declined  as 
follows : 


Tristis,  sad.^ 


Tristior,  sadder,^ 


SINGULAR. 


M.  AND  F. 

Nom.  tristis 
Gen.    tristis 
Dat.    tristi 
trlstem 
tristis 
tristi 


Ace. 
Voc. 
Ahl. 


Neut. 
triste 
tristis 
tristi 
triste 
triste 
tristi 

tristia 
trlstiiim 

tristibiis 
tristi» 
tristia 
trlstibus 


PLURAL. 


M.  AND  F. 

tristior 

tristioris 

tristiorl 

trlstiorem 

tristior 

tristiore  (i)  ^ 

tristiores 

trlstiomm 

tristioribiis 

tristiores  (Is) 

tristiores 

tristioribiis 


Neut. 
tristius 
tristioris 
tristiorl 
tristius 
tristius 
tristiore  (I) 

tristiora 

trlstioriim 

trlstioribus 

tristiora 

tristiora 

trl3tioril>iis 


Kom.  trIstSs 
Gen*    tristiiim 
Dat.    trlstibus 
Ace.    tristis,  Is 
Voc.    trIstCs 
Ahl.    trlstibus 

Note  1  -Like  trtHtior,  comparatives,  as  consonant  stems,  generally  have  the  Abl. 
Sing,  in  e,  sometimes  in  ^,  the  Nom.  Plur.  Neut.  in  a,  and  the  Gen  Plur.  ^J^'^^^ 
complures,  several,  has  Gen.  Plur.  eompluHum;  Nom.,  Ace,  and  Voc.  Plur.  Neut. 
complOra  or  cowplicria;  secPliis,  1G5.  ,^     »viq.       «     . .  ^^^^/i 

Note  2.-In  poetry,  adjectives  in  is,  e,  sometimes  have  the  Abl.  Smg.  in  e .  cogno- 
mine  from  cognominis,  of  the  same  name. 

1  This  retains  e  in  declension  :  celer,  celeHs,  celere;  and  has  vm  in  the  Gen.  Plur. 

2  Bee  also  77,  2,  note.  .    ^  .  ^. 

3  TrUtia  and  triste  are  declined  like  acria  and  acre;  the  stem  is  triati. 

4  TrUtior  is  the  comparative  (180)  oi  tristis;  the  stem  was  originally  trUtios,  but 
it  has  been  modified  to  trUtius  (61, 1)  and  tristior  (31). 

*  Enclosed  endings  are  rare. 


155.  Adjectives  of  0^^  Endikg  generally  end  in  s  or 
X,  but  sometimes  in  I  or  r. 


156.  Audax,  a 

MidaciouB,  * 

Felix, 

happy, ^ 

SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom.  audax. 

audax 

felix 

felix 

Gen.   audacis 

audacis 

fellcis 

felicis 

Dat.    audaci 

audaci 

fellcl 

fellcl 

Ace.    audaccm 

audax 

felicem 

felix 

Voc.    audax 

audax 

felix 

felix 

Ahl.    audaci  (e) 

audaci  (e) 

felici  (e) 

felici  (e) 

PLURAL 

1 

Nom.  audaces 

audacia. 

felices 

fellcia 

Gen,  audaciuiiJ 

audaciuiii 

felicium 

felicium 

Dat.   audacibus 

audacibus 

felicibus 

felicibus 

Ace.    audaces  (Is) 

audacia 

felices  (Is) 

felicia 

Voc.   audaces 

audacia* 

felicCs 

felicia 

Ahl,    audacibus 

audacibus 

felicibus 

felicibus 

157.  Arnans,  loving. 

Prudens, 

prudent. 

SINGULAB 

M.  AND  F. 

Neft. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Nom.  amans 

amans 

prudens 

prudens 

Gen.   amantis 

amantis  ^ 

prtidentis 

prudentis  ' 

Dat.    amanti 

amanti 

prudent! 

prudentl 

Ace.    amanteni 

amans 

prudentem 

prudens 

Voc,    amans 

amans 

prudens 

prudens 

Ahl.    am  ante  (i) 

amantc  (I) 

prudentl  (e) 

prudentl  (e) 

PLURAL. 

( 

Nom.  amantCs 

amantia, 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Gen.   amantiiiiki 

amantiiiiii 

prudentiuiii 

prudentiuMi 

Dat.    amantibiis 

amantibiis 

prudentibus 

prudentibus 

Ace.    amantis  (Is) 

amantia, 

prudentiBs  (Is)  *  prudentia 

Voc.    amantes 

amantia 

prudentes 

prudentia 

Ahl.    amantibiis 

amantibiis 

prudentibus 

prudentibus 

Note. — The  participle  amans  differs  in  declension  from  the  adjective  prudens  only 

in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  where 

the  participle  usually 

has  the  ending  e. 

and  the  adjective,!. 

^  Observe  that  I  in  the  Abl.  Sing.,  and  ia,  ium,  and  Is  in  the  Plur.,  arc  the  regular 
case-endings  for  i-stems ;  see  63  and  63. 

'-'  According  to  Eitschl,  Schmitz,  and  others,  the  e  which  is  long  in  prudens  before  ns 
is  short  in  all  other  forms  of  the  word,  i.  e.,  before  nt.  In  the  same  manner  the  a  which 
is  long  in  amans,  is  according  to  Eitschl  short  in  amantis,  amanti,  etc. ;  see  p.  87,  foot- 
note 2.    See  also  Schmitz,  pp.  8-2G;  Eitschl,  Ehein.  Museum,  xxxi.,  p.  488 ;  Muller,  p.  2T. 


62 


ADJECTIVES. 


Participles  used  adjectively  may  of  course  take  i.  A  few  adjectiyes  have  only  e  in  gen- 
eral use:— (1)  pauper^  paupere^  poor;  puhes^  pilhere^  mature;— (2)  those  in  es,  G. 
itis  or  idis :  (UeSy  deses^j^i'ive^^  sonpes^  euperstes  ;  (3)  caelebs,  compos^  impos,  prlnceps. 


158.  Yctus,  old. 


Memor,  mindful. 


SINGULAR. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

M.  AND  F. 

Neut. 

Norn. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

Gen. 

veteris 

veteris 

memoris 

memoris 

Bat. 

vetcrl 

veterl 

memorl 

memorl 

Ace. 

veterem 

vetus 

memorem 

memor 

Voc. 

vetus 

vetus 

memor 

memor 

All 

vetere  (I) 

vetere  (I) 

PLURAL. 

memorl 

memorl 

Nom. 

veteres 

Vetera 

mcmores 

Gen. 

vetenim 

veternHi 

memorimi 

Bat. 

veteribws 

veteribiis 

memoribiis 

Ace. 

veter4B»  (Is) 

Vetera, 

memorCs  (Is) 

Voc. 

veterCs 

Vetera 

memor€s> 

Abl. 

veteril>iis 

veteribus 

memoribas 

1.  Neuter  Plural. — Many  adjectives  like  memor,  from  the  nature  of 
their  signification,  want  the  Neuter  Plural ;  all  others  have  the  ending  ta, 
as  fellcia,  prudentia,  except  uher,  uheray  fertile,  and  vetus,  Vetera. 

2.  Genitive  Plural. — Most  adjectives  have  imn,  but  the  following 
have  um : 

1)  Adjectives  of  one  ending  with  only  e  in  the  Ablative  Singular  (157, 
note) :  paupa\  paupei^m. 

2)  Those  with  the  Genitive  in  eris,  oris,  iiris:  vetus,  veienim,  old; 
memor,  memorum,  mindful ;  cicur,  cicurum,  tame. 

3)  Those  in  ceps :  anceps,  ancipitura,  doubtful. 

4)  Those  compounded  with  substantives  which  have  um:  inops  (ops, 
opum),  inopicm,  helpless. 

Irregular  Adjectives. 
159.  Irregular  adjectives  may  be — 

I.  Indeclinable  :  frugi,  frugal,  good ;  ncquam,  worthless ;  mille,  thou- 
sand; see  176. 

II.  Defective  :  (ceterus)  cetera,  cetctmm,  the  other,  the  rest ;  (ludicer) 
ludici'a,  ludicrum,  sportive ;  (sons)  sontis,  guilty ;  (seminex)  seminecis,  half 
dead;  pauci,  ae,  a,  few,  used  only  in  the  Plural;  see  also  158,  1. 

.III.  Heteroclites. — Many  adjectives  have  two  distinct  forms,  one  in 
t^,  a,  um,  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  one  in  is  and  e  of  the 
third :  hilarus  and  hilaris,  joyful ;  ezanimus  and  cxanimis,  lifeless. 


4' 

It 


l! 


1^ 


i    \ 


COMPARISON. 


63 


COMPARISOJST  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

160.  Adjectives  have  three  forms,  called  the  Positive 
degree,  the  Comparative,  and  the  Superlative:  altusy  at- 
tior,  altissirnus,  high,  higher,  highest.  These  forms  denote 
different  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective. 

161.  The  Latin,  like  the  English,  has  two  modes  of  com- 
parison : 

I.  Termii^atioj^al  CoMPARisois" — ^by  endings. 

II.  Adverbial  Comparison — by  adverbs. 

I.  Terminational  Comparison. 

1 62.  Adjectiyes  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  to  the 
stem  of  the  positive  the  endings : 

Superlative. 


Comparative. 
Masc.      Fem.     Neut. 

ior       ior       ius 


Masc. 
issimus 


Fem. 

issima 


Neut. 

issimum 


altus,  altior,  altissiraus,  high,  higher,  highest, 
levis,  levior,  levissimus,  light,  lighter,  lightest. 

Note. — Vowel  Stems  lose  their  final  vowel:  alto,  altior,  aliissimus. 

163.  Irregular  Superlatives. — Many  adjectives  with  regu- 
lar comparatives  have  irregular  superlatives.     Thus : 

1.  Those  in  er  add  rimus  to  this  ending:  ^  deer,  dcrior,  dccrrimus,  sharp. 

Note. —  Vetus  has  veterrimus;  mat  finis,  both  mdturrimus  and  tndturiesimua ; 
dexter,  dextimus. 

2.  Six  in  ills  add  limus  to  the  stem :  * 

facilis,  diflicilis,  easi/,  difficult, 

similis,         dissimilis,         like,  unlike, 

gracilis,        humilis,  slender,        low: 

facilis,  facilior,  facillimus.  Imbecillis  has  imhecilllmus. 

3.  Four  in  rus  have  two  irregular  superlatives : 

exterus,  exterior,  extremus   and  extimus,  outward, 

Inferus,  inferior,  infimus       and  imus,  lower, 

superus,  superior,  supremus  and  summus,  upper, 

posterus,  posterior,  postremus  and  postumus,  next. 

J  The  superlative  ending  is-simus  is  probabh^  compounded  oUs,  from  ids,  the  original 
comparative  ending  (154,  foot-note  4),  fm^simus  for  timus;  ids-timu8,-=  ids-simus  = 
is-simus.  After  I  and  r,  the  first  element  is  omitted,  and  s  assimilated :  facilis,  facil- 
simus,  facil-limus ;  deer,  ucer-simus,  dcer-rimus;  but  those  in  His  drop  the  final 
vowel  of  the  stem.     See  Bopp,  §§  291-807;  Schleicher,  pp.  48S-494;  Roby,  p.  Ixvi. 


64 


a   8 


a   9 

COMPARISON. 


a 


^ 


164.   EgenuSy  providus,   and  compounds  in   dicus,   ficus,   and 
volus,  are  compared  with  the  endings  entior  and  entissimus,  as  if 
rom  forms  in  ens: 


a 


a 


egenus, 

providens, 

maledicus, 

munificus, 

benevolus, 


egentior, 

providentior, 

raalediccntior, 

mtinificentior, 

benevolentior, 


egentissimus, 

providentissimus, 

maledicentissimus, 

munificentissimus, 

benevolentissimus, 


needy^ 

'prudent^ 

slanderous^ 

liberal, 

benevolent. 


Note. — Mirificisaimus  occurs  as  the  superlative  of  mirifcn-s,  wonderful. 

165.  Special  Irregularities  of  Comparison. 


bonus, 

malus, 

mSgnus, 

parvus, 

multus. 


melior, 

pejor, 

major, 

minor, 

plus. 


optiraus, 

pessimus, 

maximus, 

minimus, 

plurimus. 


good, 
bad, 
great, 
^.  small, 
much. 


Note  1. — Pli'is  is  neuter,  and  has  in  the  singular  only  Nom.  and  Ace.  plus,  and  Gen. 
pluris.  In  the  plural  it  has  Nom.  and  Ace.  plurea  (m.  and  f.),  plura  (n.),  Gen.  pluri- 
i*m,  Dat  and  Abl.  plurihus. 

Note  2. — D'wea,  friigl,  and  nequam  are  thus  compared : 


♦    166 

dives, 

frugf, 
ncquam, 

.  Positive  " 

dlvitior, 
ditior, 
frugalior, 
nequior, 

WANTING. 

divitissimus,  | 
ditissimus,     S 
frugaliseimus, 
nequissimus, 

rich, 

frugal, 
worthless. 

citerior, 

deterior, 

interior. 

citimus,              nearer, 
deterrimus,        worse, 
intimus,              inner. 

/^  prior, 

y  propior, 
ulterior. 

primus,           former, 
proxiraus,        nearer, 
ultimus,           farther. 

ocior, 

ocissimus, 

swifter, 

diversus,  diversissimus, 

falsus,  falsissimus, 

inclutus,  inclutissimus, 

invltus,  invltissimus. 


novus, 
sacer, 
^  vetus. 


> 


novissimus 
sacerrimus, 
vetcrrimus, 


new. 


sacred, 
old. 


167.  Comparative  wanting. 

1.  In  a  few  participles  used  adjectivcly :  meritus,  meintissimus,  deserving. 

2.  In  these  adjectives  : 

different, 
false, 
renowned, 
unwilling. 

Note.— Many  participles  used  adjectively  are  compared- in  full:  amdns,  amantior, 
amantissimus^  loving;  doctiis,  doctior,  doctissimus^  instructed,  learned. 

168.  Superlative  wanting. 

1.  In  most  verbals  in  ills  and  bills :  docilis,  dodUor,  docile. 

2.  In  many  adjectives  in  alls  and  ills :  capitalis,  capitalior,  capital. 

3.  In  alaccr,  alaa^ior,  active ;  caecus,  blind ;  diUturnus,  lasting ;  longln- 
quus,  distant";  opimus,  rich  ;  procllvis,  steep ;  prophiquus,  near  ;  salulark, 
salutary,  and  a  few  others. 

4.  Three  adjectives  supply  the  superlative  thus  : 


/ 


»1 


\ » 


r 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


65 


adolescSns, 

juvenis, 

senex. 


adolescentior, 

junior, 

senior, 


minimus  natu,i 
minimus  natu, 
maximus  natu. 


young, 
young, 
old. 


169.  Without  Terminational  Comparison. 

1.  Many  adjectives,  from  the  nature  of  their  signification,  especially  such 
as  denote  material,  possession,  or  the  relations  of  place  and  time :  aureus, 
golden ;  paternus,  paternal ;  Bomdnus,  Roman ;  aestlvus,  of  summer. 

2.  Most  adjectives  in  us  preceded  by  a  vowel:  idoneus,  suitable. 

3.  Many  derivatives  in  dlis,  dris,  His,  ulus,  iciis,  inus,  drus:  mortdlis 
(mors),  mortal. 

4.  Albus,  white ;  claudus,  lame ;  ferus,  wild ;  lassus,  weary ;  mirus,  won- 
derful, and  a  few  others. 

^2^-^11.  Adverbial  Comparison. 

170.  Adj Actives  which  want  the  terminational  comparison,  form  the 
comparative  and  superlative,  when  their  signification  requires  it,  by  pre- 
fixing the  adverbs  magis,  more,  and  maximc,  most,  to  the  positive :  arduus, 
magis  arduiis,  mdxime  arduus,  arduous. 

1.  Other  adverbs  are  sometimes  used  with  the  positive  to  denote  difierent 
degrees  of  the  quality ;  admodum,  valde,  oppido,  very  ;  imprimis,  apprlme,  in 
the  highest  degree.  Per  and  prae  in  composition  with  adjectives  have  the 
force  of  very :  perdifficilis,  very  difficult ;  praecldrns,  very  illustrious. 

2.  Strengthening  particles  are  also  sometimes  used— (1)  With  the  com- 
parative: etiam,  even,  multo,  long'e,  much,  far:  etiam  dlligentior,  even  more 
diligent ;  multo  dlligentior,  much  more  diligent— (2)  With  the  superlative  : 
multo,  longe,  much,  by  far;  quam,  as  possible:  multo  or  longe  dlligentissi- 
mus,  by  far  the  most  diligent ;  quam  dlligentissimns,  as  diligent  as  possible. 

Numerals. 

171.  Kumerals  comprise  numeral  adjectives  and  numeral 
adverbs.^ 

1 72.  Numeral  adjectives  comprise  three  principal  classes : 

1.  Cardiin'Al  Numbers^:  wius,  one;  duo,  two. 

2.  Ordin^al  Ni/mbers  :  J9rm2^5,  first ;  secundus,  ^econdi. 

3.  Distributives  :  singuli,  one  by  one ;  Mnl,  two  by 
two,  two  each,  two  apiece. 

1 73^  To  these  may  be  added — 


i^«a5lle|Bt,oi'-yomTg^srin  age.    JVatU  is  soqietimes  omitted.  <» 

^  The  first  ten  cardinal  numbers,  mllle,  ^Imus,  seiundus,  and  semel  (once),  four- 
\    teen  words  in  all,  furnish  the  basis  of  the^li^in  numeray  system.    All  other  numerals  are 
vformed  from  these  either  by  derivation^^jHoy  composition. 


t:V'mvagr-.,n- 


y 


s 


66 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES, 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES, 


67 


1.  MuLTiPLiCATivES,  adjectives  in  plex,  Gen.  plids,  denoting  so  many 
fold :  simplex,  single ;  duplex,  double ;  triplex,  threefold. 

2.  Proportionals,  declined  like  bonus,  and  denoting  so  many  times  as 
great :  duplus,  twice  as  great ;  triphis,  three  times  as  great. 

174.  Table  of  Numeral  Adjectives: 


Cardinals. 

1,  linus,  una,  unum 

2.  duo,  duae,  duo 
/  3.  tres,  tria 

4.  quattuor 
6.  quinque 

6.  sex 

7.  septem 

8.  octo 

9.  novera 

10.  decern 

11.  undecim 

12.  duodecim 

13.  tredecimi 

14.  quattuordecim 

15.  quindecim 

16.  sedccim  or  sexdecim  i 

17.  septendecimi 

18.  duodeviginti  2  ^ 

19.  undevlginti^ 

20.  viginti 

2-j^  ( vIgintI  unus 
<  unus  ct  viginti  ^ 

I  duo  et  viginti 

30.  triginta 

40.  quadraginta 

50.  quInquSginta 

60.  sexaginta 

70.  septuaginta 

80.  octoginta 


Okdinals. 
primus,  first 
secundus,*  second 
tertius,  tJdrd 
quartus,  fourth 
quintus,  ffth 
sextus 
Septimus 
octavus 
nOnus 
decimus 
undecimus 
duodecimus 
tertius  decimus  * 
quartus  decimus 
quintus  decimus 
sextus  decimus 
Septimus  decimus 
duodevicgsimus « 
"Qndevlcesimus  « 
vicesimus  ^ 
vicesimus  primus 
•Qnus  et  vicesimus  ^ 
vicesimus  secundus 
alter  et  vicesimus 
trlcesimus  ^ 
quadragesimus 
quinquagesimus 
sex5g5simus 
septuagCsimus 
octogesimus 


DiSTBIBUTIVEB, 

singull,  one  by  one 

binl,  two  by  two 

terni  (trini) 

quatcrni 

quini 

Beni 

septeni 

octoni 

noveni 

deni 

undeni 

duodeni 

tcrni  deni 

quatemi  deni 

quInI  deni 

86nl  denI 

septcnl  deni 

duodeviceni 

undevlceni 

viceni 

viceni  singull 

singull  et  vicSnl 

vlcgnl  binl 

binl  et  vlcSni 

trlcenl 

quadragenl 

quinquagem 

sexSgenl 

septufigeni 

octOgenI 


1  Sometimes  with  the  parts  separated :  decern  et  tres  ;  decern  et  aex^  etc. 

2  Literally  two  from  twenty,  one  from  twenty,  by  subtraction ;  but  these  numbers 
may  be  expressed  by  addition  :  decern  et  octo  ;  decern  et  novem  ;  so  28,  29 ;  88,  39,  etc., 
either  by  subtraction  from  trlgintd,  etc.,  or  by  addition  to  viginti. 

3  If  the  tens  precede  the  units,  et  is  omitted,  otherwise  it  is  generally  used.  So  in 
English  cardinals,  twenty -one,  one  and  twenty. 

*  Alter  is  c%*ten  used  for  secundum, 

»  Decimus,  with  or  without  et,  may  precede :  decimus  et  tertius  or  decimus  tertius. 

«  Sometimes  expressed  by  addition :  octavus  decimus  and  nonus  decimus. 

7  Sometimes  written  with  g :  vigesimus;  trigesimus. 


Cardinals. 

Ordinals. 

Distributives. 

90.  nonaginta 

nonage  simus 

nonagenl 

100.  centum 

centesimus 

centeni 

IQ^  ( centum  unus 
f  centum  et  unus  > 

centesimus  primus 

centeni  singull 

centesimus  et  primus 

centeni  et  singull 

200.  ducenti,  ae,  a 

ducentesimus 

duceni 

300.  trecenti 

trecentesimus 

treceni 

400.  quadringenti 

quadringentesimus 

quadringcnl 

500.  quingenti 

quingentesimus 

quingeni 

600.  sescentn 

sescentesimus  2 

sesceni  2 

700.  septingenti 

septingentesimus 

septingeni 

800.  octingenti 

octingentesimus 

octingeni 

900.  nongenti 

nongentesimus 

nongeni 

1,000.  mille 

mlUesimus 

singula  milia  ^ 

2,000.  duo  milia  3 

bis  mlllesimus 

bina  milia 

100,000.  centum  milia 

centies  mlllesimus 

centena  milia 

1,000,000.  decies  centena 

decies  centies  mlllesi- 

decies centena  mi- 

/,                   milia  * 

mus 

lia 

1.  Ordinals  with  pars,  part,  expressed  or  understood,  may  be  used  to 
express  fractions :  tertia  pars,  a  third  part,  a  third ;  quarta  pars,  a  fourth ; 
duae  tertiae,  two  thirds. 

Note.— Cardinal  numbers  with  partes  are  used  in  fractions  when  the  denominator  is 
larger  than  the  numerator  by  one :  duae  partes,  two  thirds,  tres  partes,  three  fourths,  etc. 

2.  Distributives  are  used — 

1)  To  show  the  number  of  objects  taken  at  a  time,  often  best  rendered 
by  adding  to  the  cardinal  each  or  apiece:  ternos  dendrios  accepet'unt^  they 
received  each  three  denarii,  or  three  apiece.    Hence — 

2)  To  express  Multiplication :  decies  centena  milia,  ten  times  a  hundred 
thousand,  a  million. 

3)  Instead  of  Cardinals,  with  nouns  plural  m  form,  but  singular  in  sense : 
bina  castra,  two  camps.  Here  for  singull  and  ternl,  uni  and  trlni  are  used : 
unae  litterae,  one  letter ;  trlnae  lltterae,  three  letters. 

4)  Sometimes  of  objects  spoken  of  in  pairs :  binl  scyphl,  a  pair  of  goblets ; 
and  in  the  poets  with  the  force  of  cardinals :  bina  hastllia,  two  spears. 

3.  Poets  use  numeral  adverbs  (181)  very  freely  in  compoun^ding  numbers: 
bis  sex,  for  duodecim  /  bis  septem,  for  quattuordecim, 

4.  Sescenti  and  mllle  are  sometimes  used  indefinitely  for  any  large  num- 
ber, as  one  thousand  is  used  in  English. 

*  In  compounding  numbers  above  100,  units  generally  follow  tens,  tens  hundreds,  etc., 
as  in  English ;  but  the  connective  et  is  either  omitted,  or  used  only  between  the  two 
highest  denominations  :  mllle  centum  viginti  or  mllle  et  centum  viginti,  1120. 

2  Often  incorrectly  written  sexcentl,  sexcentesimus,  and  sexcem. 

3  Often  written  millia.    For  duo  milia,  Mna  milia  or  bis  mllle  is  sometimes  used. 

*  Literally  "ten  times  a  hundred  thousand";  the  table  might  be  carried  up  to  any 
desired  number  by  using  the  proper  numeral  adverb  with  centena  milia  :  centies  cen- 
t&na  milia,  10,000,000;  sometimes  in  such  combinations  centena  milia  is  understood, 
and  the  adverb  only  is  expressed,  and  sometimes  centum  milia  is  used. 


68 


DECLENSION  OF  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 


Declension  of  Kumeral  Adjectives. 
175.  UnuSy  DuOy  and  Tres  are  declined  as  follows: 

Unus,  one. 


SINGULAR. 

' 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

unus 

una 

unum 

uni 

unae 

una 

Gen. 

unlus 

unius 

unlus 

unorum 

tinarum 

unorum 

Dat. 

urn 

uni 

uni 

unis 

unis 

tinTs 

Ace. 

unum 

unam 

unum 

unos 

Unas 

una 

Voc. 

tine 

una 

unum 

uni 

-    unae 

iHia 

Abl. 

tinO 

una 
Duo,  two. 

unO 

unIs 

unls 
Tres,  three. 

unls 

Nom. 

duo 

duae 

duo* 

tres,  m. 

and  f. 

tria,  n. 

Gen. 

duorum 

duarum 

duorum  ' 

trium 

trium 

Dat. 

-4uObus 

duabus 

duobus    • 

tribus 

tribus 

Ace. 

duos,  duo 

duas 

duo 

tres,  tris 

tria 

Voc. 

duo 

duae 

duo 

tres 

/ 

tria 

Abl 

duobus 

duabus 

duobus 

tribus 

tribus 

Note  1. — The  plural  of  unus  in  the  sense  of  alone  may  be  used  with  any  noun  :  nnl 
Uhil^  the  Ubii  alone ;  but  in  the  sense  of  one^  it  is  used  only  with  nouns  plural  in  form, 
but  singular  in  sense :  Una  caatra^  one  camp ;  unae  lltterae,  one  letter. 

Note  2.— Like  duo  is  declined  anibo^  both. 

Notes. — Multl^  many,  and  pluriml^  very  many,  are  indefinite  numerals,  and  as 
such  generally  want  the  singular.  But  in  the  poets  the  singular  occurs  in  the  sense  of 
many  a :  mxilta  kostia,  many  a  victim. 

1 76.  The  Cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum  are  indeclinable. 

177.  Hundreds  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus:  ducenii,  ae,  a. 

1 78.  -Millie  as  an  adjective  is  indeclinable ;  as  a  substantive  it  is  used 
in  the  singular  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative,^  but  in  the  plural  it  is 
declined  like  the  plural  of  mare  (63) :  milia^^  milium^  mlllbus. 

Note. — With  the  substantive  mllle^  mllia,  the  name  of  the  objects  enumerated  is 
generally  in  the  Genitive:  niUle  ho?ninum^  a  thousand  men  (of  men);  but  if  a  declined 
numeral  intervcL'es  it  takes  the  case  of  that  numeral :  tria  milia  trecentl  militcs^  three 
thousand  three  hundred  soldiers. 

1 79.  Ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus^  and  distributives  like  the  plural 
of  bonus,  but  the  latter  often  have  Um  instead  of  drum  in  the  Genitive : 
binUm  for  binorum. 

1  In  the  ending  o  in  duo  and  ambo  (1 75,  note  2),  we  have  a  remnant  of  the  dual  num- 
ber which  has  otherwise  disappeared  from  the  Latin,  though  preserved  in  Greek  and  San- 
skrit.   Compare  the  Sanskrit  dva^  the  Greek  5uo,  the  Latin  duo^  and  the  English  two. 

2  Instead  of  duorum  and  duarum^  dui'tm  is  sometimes  used. 

3  Rarely  in  other  cases  in  connection  with  milium  or  mllibus. 

*  Generally  written  with  one  /;  miliar  but  sometimes  with  two:  mlllia. 


/ 


\ 


NUMERAL  ADVERBS. 


OLS: 


69 


I. 

12 

II. 

13 

III. 

14 

IV. 

15 

V. 

16 

VI. 

17. 

VII. 

18. 

VIII. 

19. 

IX. 

20. 

X. 

30. 

XI. 

40. 

KOMAN. 

Arabic. 

KOMAN 

XII. 

50. 

L. 

XIII. 

60. 

LX. 

XIV. 

70. 

LXX. 

XV. 

80." 

LXXX. 

XVI. 

90. 

XC. 

XVII. 

100. 

C. 

XVIII. 

200. 

eg. 

XIX. 

500. 

ID,  or  i). 

XX. 

600. 

DC. 

XXX. 

1,000. 

CIO,  or  M.i 

XL. 

10,000. 

CCIOO. 

Abab 
1. 
2. 
8. 
4. 
5. 
6. 
7. 
8. 
9. 
10. 
11. 


1.  Latin  Numeral  Symbols  are  combinations  of:  1  =  1;  V  =  5;  X  =  10; 
L  =  50 ;  C  =  100  ;  10  orT>  =  500 ;  CIO  or  M  =  l,000.a 

2.  In  the  Combination  of  these  symbols,  except  10,  observe — 

1)  That  the  repetition  of  a  symbol  doubles  the  value  :  II  =  2 ;  XX  =  20. 

2)  That  any  symbol  standing  before  one  of  greater  value,  subtracts  its 
own  value,  but  that  after  one  of  greater  value,  it  adds  its  own  value :  V  =  5; 
IV  =  5-1  =  4;  VI  =  5  +  1  =  6. 

3.  In  the  Combination  of  10  observe — 

1)  That  each  0  (inverted  C)  after  10  increases  the  value  tenfold :  10  =  500 ; 
100  =  500  X  10  =  5,000 ;  1000  =  5,000  x  lO  =  50,000. 

2)  That  these  numbers  are  doubled  by  placing  C  the  same  number  of 
times  before  I  as  0  stands  after  it :  10  =  500 ;  CIO  =  500  x  2  =  1,000 ;  100  = 
5,000 ;  CCIOO  =  5,000  x  2  =  10,000. 

3)  That  smaller  symbols  standing  after  these  add  their  value :  10  =  500 ; 
IOC  =  600 ;  lOCC  =  700. 

Numeral  Adverbs. 
181.  To  numerals  belong  also  numeral  adverbs  : 


1.  semel,  once 

2.  bis,  twice 

3.  ter,  thre^  times 

4.  quater 


5.  quinquies^ 

6.  sexies 

7.  septies 

8.  octies 


9.  novies 

10.  decies 

11.  tiiidecies 

12.  duodecies 


*  Thousands  are  sometimes  denoted  by  a  line  over  the  symbol :  II  =  2,000 ;  V  =  5,000. 

'^  The  ori^n  of  these  symbols  is  uncertain.    According-  to  Mommsen,  I  is  the  out- 
stretched finger ;   F,  the  open  hajid ;  X^  the  two  hands  crossed  ;  X,  the  open  hand  Hke  FJ^ 
but  in  a  different  position ;  CIO  is  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  4>,  not  other- 
wise used  by  the  Romans,  afterward  changed  to  M;  10^  afterward  changed  to  /),  is  a; 
part  of  CIO  ;  Cis  also  supposed  to  be  a  modification  of  the  Greek  0,  but  it  may  be  the; 
initial  letter  of  centum^  as  if  may  be  that  of  m'dle.                                      ,  | 

I  3  In  adverbs  formed  from  cardinal  numbers,  its  is  the  approved  ending,  though  iens^ 
often  occurs.  In  adverbs  from  indefinite  numeral  adjectives  ien^  is  the  approved  ending ': 
fotims  (from  tot\  so  often;  quotidns  (from  quot),  how  often.    See  Brambach,  p.  14:.^ J 


70 


PRONOUNS. 


13. 


j  terdecigs 
( tredecies 


^    j  quaterdecies 
*  { quattuordecies 

j  quinquiesdecies 
'Iqulndecies 

j  sexiesdecies 

(sedeciSs 
17.  septiesdecies 

j  duodevlcies 

1  octigsdecies 

( undevicies 


18. 


19. 


( noviesdeciSs 


20.  vicies 

21.  semel  et  vicies 

22.  bis  et  vicies 
30.  tricies 

40.  quadrSgics 

50.  quinquagiCs 

60.  sexagies 

70.  septuagies 

80.  octogies 

90.  nonagies 

100.  centies 

101.  centies  semel 

102.  centies  bis 


200.  ducenties 
300.  trecenties 
400.  quadringenties 
500.  quingenties 
600.  sescenties 
700.  septingenties 
800.  octingenties 

/nongenties 
1,000.  milligs» 
2,000.  bis  millies 
100,000.  centies  millies 
1,000,000.  millies  millies 


KoTE  1.— In  compounds  of  units  and  tens,  the  unit  with  et  generally  precedes,  as  in 
the  table :  Ma  et  vicies;  the  tens,  however,  with  or  without  et^  may  precede. 

Note  2. — Another  class  of  numeral  adverbs  in  um  or  o  is  formed  from  the  ordinals : 
prlmum^  prlmo,  for  the  first  time,  in  the  first  place ;  tertium^  teriio^  for  the  third  time. 


CHAPTER    III 
PRONOUNS. 

182.  Iiq"  construction,  Pronouns^  are  used  either  as  Sub- 
stantives: ego,  I,  tUy  thou;  or  as  Adjectives:  mens,  my, 
tuuSy  your. 

183.  Pronouns  are  divided  into  six  classes  : 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  :  tu,  thou. 

2.  Possessive  Pronouns  :  mens,  my. 

3.  Demonstrative  Pronouns :  hic,  this. 

4.  Relative  Pronouns  :  qtci,  who. 

5.  Interrogative  Pronouns  :  qicisy  who  ? 

6.  Indefinite  Pronouns  :  aliqids,  some  one. 

I.  Personal  Pronouns. 

184.  Personal  Pronouns/  so  called  because  they  desig- 
nate the  person  of  the  noun  which  they  represent,  are  : 

*  Mlllila  is  often  used  indefinitely  like  the  English  a  thousand  times. 

'  But  in  their  signification  and  use,  Pronouns  differ  widely  from  ordinary  substantives 
and  adjectives,  as  they  never  name  any  object,  action,  or  quality,  but  Biinply  point  out 
Its  relation  to  the  speaker,  or  to  some  other  person  or  thing;  see  314,  II.,  with  foot-note. 

*  Also  called  Substantive  Pronouns,  because  they  are  always  used  substantively. 


"■      i^'JW 


PRONOUNS, 
Ego,  /.  Tu,  tliou. 

SINGULAR. 


71 

Sui,  of  himself,  etc.^ 


No7n.  ego^ 

Gen,    mel 

Dat,    mihi  or  ml 

Ace,    me 

Voc. 

J^bl,    mS; 

i 

I 

nos 

(nostrum 

(nostri 
Bat.   nobis 
Ace,    nos 
Voc. 
AhL    nobis 


/ 


Aoi.    me 
W^om,  noi 


PLURAL. 


Gen, 


tu 

tul 

tib! 

te 

tu 

te 

vos 

vestrum  ^ 

vestrl 

vobis 

vos 

vos 

vobIs 


/ 


sup 
sibi 

se 

se 


} 


sui 

sibf 

se 

se 


1.  The  Case-Endings  of  Pronouns  differ  considerably  from  those  of  Nouns. 

2.  Sui,  of  himself,  etc.,  is  often  called  the  Reflexive  pronoun. ' 

3.  Emphatic  Forms  in  met  occur,  except  in  the  Gen.  Plur. :  egom^t,  I  my- 
self; temet,  etc.    But  the  Nom.  tu  has  tute  and  tutemet,  not  tumet, 

4.  Eeduplicated  Forms. — Sese,  t^te^  meme,  for  se,  te,  me. 

5.  Ancient  and  Eare  Forms.— Jfw  for  mel;  tls  ioxtui;  nied  and  m£pte 
ioxms ;  ted  for  te;  sed,  sepse,  for  se. 

6.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  ablative  of  a  Personal  Pronoun,  is  appended 
to  it :  mecum,  tecum. 

II.  Possessive  Pronouns. 
185.  From  Personal  pronouns  are  formed  the  Possessives: 


meus,  a,  um,  my 


noster,  tra,  trum,  our; 


\ 


\ 


tuus,    a,  um,  thy,  your;       vester,  tra,  trum,  your ;^ 
stms,   a,  um,  his,  hers,  its;  suus,     a,     um,     their. 


V- 


*  Of  himself,  herself  itself.    The  Nominative  is  not  used. 

2  Ego  has  no  connection  in  form  with  mel,  mih%  etc.,  but  it  corresponds  to  the 
Greek  eywi/,  cyw.    The  oblique  cases  of  ego  and  tic  in  the  smgrular  are  derived  from  the 
Indo-European  roots  wa  and  tva.    Compare  the  Accusative  Singular  of  each  in— 
Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  English. 

la-m  or  ma,  /u,e,  me,  me. 

»     tva-m  or  tva,  re  or  <re,  te,  thee. 

Sui,  sibl,  si,  in  both  numbers  are  formed  from  the  root  sva.    The  origin  of  the  plural 
forms  of  ego  and  tu  is  obscure.    See  Papillon,  pp.  142-149;  Kuhuer,  I.,  pp.  378-3S2. 

5  Vestrum  and  vestrl  are  also  written  tosirilm  and  vostrl,  though  less  correctly. 
Mel,  tul,  sui,  nostri,  and  vestrl,  are  in  form  strictly  Possessives  in  the  Gen.  Sing.,  but  by 
use  they  have  become  Personal.  ^Vo«^ri  and  i;€5^l  have  also  become  Plural.  Thus,  mew  or 
vestrl,  *ibindftil  of  you,'  means  literally  mindful  of  yours,  i.  e.,  of  your  welfare,  interest' 
Nostrum  and  vestrum,  for  nostrorum  and  vestrorum,  are  also  Possessives ;  see  185. 

it 


4 


73 


PRONOUNS. 


jf  Note  1,— Possessives  are  declined  as  adjectives  of  the  first  and  second  declensions ; 
Dut  meu8  has  in  the  Vocative  Singular  Masculine  generally  mi^  sometimes  meus^  and  in 
the  Genitive  Plural  sometimes  meu77i  instead  otmevrum,^ 
^  Note  2. — Emphatic  forms  in  pte  and  met  occur:  suapte^  suamet. 
I  Note  3. — Other  possessivcs  are:  (1)  cujifs^  cr,  um^^  'whose,'  and  cujtta^  a,  um^ 
*whose?'  declined  like  bonus^  and  (2)  the  Patrials,  nostras^  Genitive  diis^  'of  our  coun- 
try,' 'vestrds^  Genitive  dtis^  'of  your  country,'  and  cvjds^  Genitive  dtis^  'of  whose  coun- 
ky,'  declined  as  adjectives  of  Declension  III. 

/ 

III.  Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

186.  Demonstrative  Pronouns,  so  called  because  they  spe- 
cify the  objects  to  which  they  refer,  are  declined  as  follows: 


I.  Hic,  this,* 


Masc. 
Nom.  hic 

Goi.  hujus 
Dat,    huic 
Ace.    hunc 
Ahl,    hoc 


SINGULAR. 
Fem. 
haec 
hujus 
huic 
hanc 
hac 


Nkut. 
hoc 
hujus  ^ 
huic 
h5c« 
hoc'^V 


\\ 


11.  Iste,  thaty  that  of  yours  ;^  see  450. 


Masc. 
Nam.  iste 
Gen.  istius 
Dat.    isti 
Ace.    istum 
Ahl.    isto 


singular. 
Fem. 
ista 
istius 
istI 
istam 
ista 


Neut. 

istud 

istius 

istI 

istud  ® 

isto 


Masc. 

istI 

istorum 

istis 

istos 

istis 


PLURAL. 
Fem. 

istae 

istarum 

istis 

istas 

istis 


Nettt. 

ista 

istorum 

istis 

ista 

istis 


?tw. 


*  In  early  Latin  tuus  is  sometimes  written  ^otw,  and  suua^  sovos. 

2  From  the  relative  qul^  cujus  (187),  also  written  quoins. 

3  From  the  Interrogative  quis,  cujus  (188),  also  written  quiJius. 

*  The  stem  of  hic  is  Ao,  Aa,  which  by  the  addition  of «,  another  pronominal  stem, 
seen  in  i-s,  'he,'  becomes  in  certain  cases  hi  (for  7io-i\  hae  (for  Jia-i)^  as  in  hl-c^  ?iae-c. 
The  forms  Ao,  /wf,  appear  in  ho-c^  ha-nc.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  this  pronoun  are 
hec  (for  hic\  Twins  (for  Jiff  jus),  hoic,  hoice  (for  huic),  hone  (for  hunc),  heis^  heisce,  his, 
hlsce  (for  h'lce,  hl\  hlbtis  (for  his). 

5  The  Genitive  suffix  is  us,  appended  to  the  stem  after  the  addition  oft  (foot-note  4) : 
ho-i-us,  /mjus  (i  changed  to  J  between  two  vowels,  28);  isto-i-us,  istius  (i  retained  after 
a  consonant).  The  suffix  us,  originally  as,  is  in  origin  the  same  as  the  suffix  is  in  the 
third  declension.  In  one  the  original  vowel  a  is  weakened  to  u,  and  in  the  other  to  i. 
J^ee  Wordsworth,  p.  95 ;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  SOT. 
Vei/The  Vocative  is  wanting  in  Demonstrative,  Relative,  Interrogative,  and  Indefinite 

IS.     . 

[ere  the  form  with  c,  haec,  is  sometimes  used. 
"The  stem  of  iste  (for  istus)  is  isto  in  the  Masc.  and  Neut.,  and  ista  in  the  Fem.    O 
is  weakened  to  e  in  iste  (34, 1,  note)  and  to  u  in  istu-d.    Ancient  and  rare  forms  of  iste 


PRONOUNS. 


73 


m.  lUe,  ihatj^  that  one^  he,  is  declined  like  iste;  see  11.  on  the 
preceding  page. 


rV.  Is,  he,  this,  that. 

SINGULAR. 


•     Maso. 
Nom.  is 
Gen.    ejus 
Dat.    el 
Ace.    eum 
Ahl.    eo 


Fem. 

ea 

ejus 

^i 

earn 

ea 


Neut. 

id 

ejus 

ei^ 

id* 

eo 


Hasc. 
el,  ii 
eorum 
els,  ils 
eos 
els,  iis 


PLURAL. 
Fem. 
eae 
earum 

els,  iis 
eas 
els,  iis 


Neut. 
ea 

eorum 
eis,  iis 
ea 
eis,  iis 


V.  Ipse,  self,  he  J 


SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom.  ipse 

ipsa 

ipsum 

ipsi 

ipsae 

ipsa 

Gen.    ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsius 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

ipsorum 

Dat.    ipsi 

ipsI 

ipsi 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

Ace.    ipsum 

ipsam 

ipsum. 

ipsos 

ipsas 

ipsa 

Ahl.    ipso 

ipsa 

ipso 

ipsis 

ipsis 

ipsis 

VI.  Idem, 

the  same.  • 

• 

—4- — -^ 

A     *    -^*- 

• 

are  istus  (for  Ute\  forms  in  I,  ae,  I  (for  ius)  in  the  Genitive,  and  in  o,  ae,  o  (for  I)  in  the 
Dat. :  isti  (for  istius),  isto  (for  istl),  istae  (for  istius  or  istl). 

1  The  stem  of  ille  (for  illus)  is  illo,  ilia.  Ancient  and  rare  forms  are  (1)  illus  (for 
ille),  forms  in  I,  ae,  I  (for  \us)  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  o,  ae,  o  (for  I)  in  the 
Dative  Singular :  illl  (for  illlus),  etc. ;  (2)  forms  from  ollus  or  olle  (for  those  from  ilU) : 

ollus,  olle,  olla,  etc. 

a  The  stem  of  is  is  *,  strengthened  in  most  of  its  case-forms  to  eo,  ea.  Ancient  or 
rare  forms  of  is  are,  eis  (for  is) ;  e-i-ei,  ei-ei,  i-ei,  eae  (for  Dative  Singular  SI)  ;  im,  em 
(for  ewm);  e-eis,i'eis,  eis  (for -Nominative  Plural  el);  e-i-eis,  ei-eis,  e-eis,  ibus,  eabus 
(for  eU).  To  these  may  be  added  a  few  rare  forms  from  a  root  of  kindred  meaning,  so, 
sa:  sum,  sam=eum,  earn;  sos,  sds=ed8,  eas.  This  root  appears  in  ip-sus,  ipsa,  ip- 
sum.   SI,  if,  and  sl-c,  thus,  are  probably  Locatives  from  this  root  or  from  sva,  the  root 

of  stil  {XS4t).  ^  ,^  *         ^ 

3  Sometimes  a  diphthong  in  poetry.  In  the  same  way  the  plural  forms  ei,  %%,  ew,  tie, 
are  sometimes  monosyUaSles.    Instead  of  il  and  i\s,  I  and  Is  are  sometimes  written. 

♦  See  page  T2,  foot-note  6.  ,  ^.  , 
6  Ipse  (for  ip^  =  i-pe^us)  is  compounded  of  is  or  its  stem  i,  the  intensive  particle 

p5,*even,'  'indeed,'  and  the  pronominal  root  so,  «a,  mentioned  in  foot-note  2  above. 
The  stem  is  ipso,  ipsa,  but  forms  oocur  with  the  first  part  declined  and  pee  unchanged : 
eum-pse,  eam-pse,  etc. ;  sometimes  combined  with  re :  redpse  =  re-eapse  =  re  %psa,  m 
reality.'    Ipms  (for  ipse)  is  not  uncommon. 

•  In  Idem,  compounded  of  is  and  dem,  only  the  first  part  is  declin-d.  Isdem  is 
shortened  to  Idem,  iddem  to  idem,  and  m  is  changed  to  n  before  dem  (33,  4).  In 
early  Latin  eisdem  and  Isdem  occur  for  Idem;  eidem  and  idem  for  idem,;  eisdem 
and  Isdem  in  the  Nominative  Plural  for  eidem. 


74 


PRONOUNS. 


I 


Masc. 
Nom.  Idem 
Gen.  Sjusdem 
Dat.   eidem 
Ace.    eundem 
Ahl.    eodem  - 


SINGULAR. 
Fem. 

eadem 

€jusdem 

&dem 

eandem 

eadem 


Neut. 

idem 

ejusdem 

^Idem ' 

idem 

eodem 


\t 


PLURAL. 
Fem. 


Masc. 

eidem  ^ 

ildem 

eorundem    earundem 


Neut. 


eaedem        eadem 


eisdem 
ilsdem 
eosdem 
eisdem 
dem 


j  els 
(  ils 


eisdem 

ilsdem 

eSsdem 

eisdem 

ilsdem 


eoniiKiem 
eisdciu  "^ 
iisdcin 
eadein 
eisdem  * 
-ilsdem 


1.  Hie  (for  M-cc)  is  compounded  with  the  demonstrative  particle  ce, 
meaning  hei^e.  The  forms  in  c  have  dropped  e,  while  the  other  forms  have 
dropped  the  particle  entirely.  But  ce  is  often  retained  for  emphasis ;  hice, 
hujusce,  hosce,  horunce  {m  changed  to  w),  horunc  {e  dropped).  Oe,  changed 
to  ci,  is  generally  retained  before  the  interrogative  ne :  hlcine,  hoscinc, 

2.  Illic  and  Istic,3  also  compounded  with  the  particle  ce,  are  declined 
alike,  as  follows : 


singular. 


Masc. 

Nom.  illic 
Gen.  illiusce 
Dat,   illic 
Ace.    illunc 
Ahl.    illoc 


Fem. 

illaec 

illiusce 

illic 

illano 

iliac 


Neut. 

illuc  (illoc) 

illiusce  * 

illic 

illuc  (illoc) 

illoc 


Masc. 
illic 

illlsce 
illosce 
illlsce 


PLURAL. 
Fem. 
illaec 

illlsce 

illasce 

illlsce 


Nei't. 

illaec 

illlsce 
illaec 
illlsce 


3.  Syncopated  Forms,  compounded  of  ecce  or  m,  *  lo,'  *  see,'  and  some 
cases  of  demonstratives,  especially  the  Accusative  oiille  and  is,  occur:  eecum 
for  ecce  mm  ;  eccos  for  ecce  em  ;  ellum  for  en  ilium  ;  ellam  for  en  illam. 

4.  Demonstrative  Adjectives  :  talis,  e,  such  ;  tantus,  a,  urn,  so  great ;  tot^ 
so  many ;  iotm,  a,  urn,  so  great.     Tot  is  indeclinable ;  the  rest  regular. 

Note.— For  talis,  the  Genitive  of  a  demonstrative'with  modi  (Genitive  of  modm^ 
measure,  kind)  is  often  used :  hujusmodl,  ejusmodl,  of  tliis  kind,  such. 

IV.  Relative  Pronouns. 
187.  The  Eelative  qui,  'who/  so  called  because  it  re- 
lates to  some  noun  or  pronoun,  expressed  or  understood, 
called  its  antecedent,  is  declined  as  follows  :  * 

^  Sometime»  a  dissyllable. 

3  Eidem  and  eisdem  are  the  approved  forms.  Int^tead  of  ildem  and  iUdem,  dis- 
syllables in  poetrjr,  idem  and  Isdem  are  often  written. 

3  Illic  and  isUc  are  formed  froni  the  stems  of  ille  and  iste  in  the  same  manner  as  7iic 
is  formed  from  its  stem;  see  page  72,  foot-note  4. 

*  Observe  that  ce  is  retained  in  full  after  «,  but  shortened  to  c  ii)  all  other  situations. 

6  The  stem  of  qui  is  quo,  qua,  which  becomes  co,  cu  in  cujus  and  cui.     Qui  and 


V 


PHONO  UNS. 


75 


Masc. 
Nom.  qui 

Gen.  cujus 

Dat.  cui 

Ace.  quern  * 

Al)l.  quo 


SINGULAR. 
Fem. 
quae 
cujus 
cui 
quam 
qua 


Neut. 

quod 

cujus 

cui 

quod 

quo 


Masc. 
qui 

quorum 
quibus 
quos 
quibus 


PLURAL. 
Fem. 
quae 
quSrum 
quibus 
quas 
quibus 


Neut. 
quae 
quorum 
quibus 
quae 
quibus 


1.  Qm^  =  qud,  qua, 'mth  which,»  'wherewith,»  is  a  Locatice  or  AblaUve 
ot  the  relative  qui. 

2.  Cum,  when  used  with  the  Abktive  of  the  relative,  is  generally  appended 
to  it:  quibuscum, 

3.  QulGumque  and  Quisquis,  '  whoever,»  are  called  from  their  signification 
general  relatives.^  Qulcumqm  (quicunque)  is  declined  like  qui.  Quisquis  is 
rare  except  in  the  forms,  quisquis,  quidquid  (quicquid),  quoquo. 

Note.— The  parts  of  Qulcumque  are  sometimes  separated  by  one  or  more  words  • 
qiul  re  cumque. 

4.  Relative  Adjectives  ;  qudlis,  e,  such  as ;  qiiantus,  a,  urn,  so  great ; 
quot,  as  many  as ;  quotus,  a,  urn,  of  which  number ;  and  the  double  and 
compound  forms ;  qudlisqudlis,  qudliseumque,  etc. 

NoTE.-For  Qxmlis  the  Genitive  of  the  relative  with  modi  is  often  used  :  cvjusmodl, 
of  what  kind,  such  as ;  cujuscumquemodl,  cuicuimodl  (for  cvjuscujusm^dl\  of  what- 
ever kind. 

V.  Interrogative  Pronouns. 
188.  The   Interrogative   Pronouns  quis  and   qui,  with 
their  compounds/  are  used  in  asking  questions.     Thej  are 
declined  as  follows  :  ; 


quae  are  formed  from  quo  and  qua  like  hi  and  hae  in  hl-c  and  hae-c  from  ho  and  hu ;  see 
186,^  I.,  foot-note  4.  Ancient  or  rare  forms  are  quel,  quis  (for  qui),  Nom.  Sing. ;  qudius 
(*  =i);  Quoi,  cui  (for  cujus,  as  in  cuimodl  =  cffjusmodl),  quoiei,  quoi  (for  cui);  quis 
(for  qui),  Nom.  Plur. ;  quai  (for  quae),  Fem.  and  Neut.  Plur. ;  queis,  quis  (for  quibus). 
*  An  Accusative  quom,  also  written  quum  and  cum,  formed  directly  from  the  stem 
quo,  became  the  conjunction  quom,  quum,  cum,  "  when,'  lit.  duritig  i^hich,  i.  e.,  during 
which  time.  Indeed,  several  conjunctions  are  in  their  origin  Accusatives  of  pronouns : 
quam,  »in  what  way/  'how/  is  the  Accusative  of  ^^^^ ;  quamquam,  *  however  much,"» 
the  Accusative  of  quis-quU  (187,  8);  turn,  'then,'  and  tarn,  'so,'  Accusatives  of  the 
pronominal  stem  to,  ta,  seen  in  is-ius,  is-te,  is-ta  (186,  II.,  foot-note  8). 

2  This  is  an  element  in  quin  =  qul-ne, '  by  which  not,' '  that  not,'  and  in  qulppe  = 
qn'-]^e,  indeed.' 

3  Relative  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  may  be  made  general  in  signification  by 
taking  cumque,  like  qul-cumque,  or  by  being  doubled  like  quis-quis :  qudlis-cumque, 
quulis-qudlis,  of  whatever  kind ;  ubl-cumque,  uM-ubl,  wheresoever. 

^  The  relative  qui,  the  interrogatives  quis,  qui,  and  the  indefinites  quis.  qui,  are 
all  formed  from  the  stem  quo,  qua.  The  ancient  and  rare  forms  are  nearly  the  same  in 
all;  see  page  74,  foot-note  5. 


i 


76 


PRONOUNS, 


I.  Quis,  wlio^  which,  what? 


SINGULAR. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Nom. 

quis 

quae 

quid 

Gen, 

cujus 

cujus 

cujus 

Bat, 

cui 

cui 

cui 

Ace, 

quern 

quam 

quid 

Abl 

quo 

qua 

quo 

Masc. 

qui 

quorum 

quibus 

quos 

quibus 


PLURAL. 

Fem. 

qu^e 

quorum 

quibus 

quas 

quibus 


Neut. 

quae 

quorum 

quibus 

quae 

quibus 


II.  Qui,  which,  what  f  is  declined  like  the  relative  qui, 

1.  Quis  is  generally  used  substantively,  and  Qui,  adjectively.  The  forms 
quis  and  quern  are  sometimes  feminine. 

2.  Qui,  how  ?  in  what  way  ?  is  a  Locative  or  Ablative  of  the  interrogative 
quis ;  see  187, 1. 

3.  Compounds  of  quis  and  qui  are  declined  like  the  simple  pronouns :  quis- 
nam,  qulnam,  ecquis,  etc.    But  ecquis  has  sometimes  ecqua  for  ecquae, 

4.  Interrogative  Adjectives  :  qtcdlis,  e,  what?  quantus,  a,  um,  how 
great?  quot,  how  many?  quotas,  a,  um,  of  what  number?  uter,  utra,  utrum, 
which  (of  two)?  see  151. 

VI.  Indefinite  Pronouns. 

189.  Indefinite  Pronouns  do  not  refer  to  any  definite 
persons  or  things.  The  most  important  are  quis  and  qui, 
with  their  compounds. 

190.  Quis,  ^any  one/  and  qui,  ^any  one/  ^any/  are 
the  same  in  form  and  declension  as  the  interrogatives  quis 
and  qui.     But — 


1.  After  si,  nisi,  ne,  a 
or  qua :  si  quae,  si  qua, 

2.  From  quis  and 

1)  The  Indefinites 

aliquis,  aliqua, 

quispiam,  quaepiam, 

quidam,  quaedam, 

quisquam,  quaequam, 


m,  the  Fem.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur.  have  quae 
are  formed — 


aliquid      or  aliquod,^ 
quidpiam  or  quodpiam,^ 
quiddam   or  quoddam,» 
quicquam  or  quidquam,* 


some,  some  one, 
some,  some  one, 
certain,  certain  one, 
any  one. 


^  Aliquis  is  compounded  of  a/i,  seen  in  ali-iis  ;  quisquam^  of  quis  and  quam ;  quis- 
que^  of  quis  and  que  (from  qm)\  qulvls,  of  qui  and  the  verb  vis  (JJ93),  'you  wish'— 
hence  qul-vht,  'any  you  wish';  qullibet,  of  qui  and  the  impersonal  libet^  'it  pleases.' 

2  Also  written  quippiam^  quQppiam. 

8  Quidam  changes  mton  before  d :  quendam  for  quemdam. 
'    *  Quisquam  generally  wants  the  Fem.  and  the  Plur. 


i 


5 


PRONOUNS. 


77 


2)  The  General  Indefinites  : 

quisque,  quaeque,  quidquo     or  quodque,i 

quaevis, 
quaelibet. 


qui  vis, 
quilibet. 


quid  vis     or  quodvis, 
quidlibet  or  quodlibet, 


every ^  every  one, 
any  one  you  please, 
any  one  you  please. 


Note  1.— These  compounds  are  generally  declined  like  quis  and  qv^,  but  they  have 
in  the  Neut.  Sing,  quod  used  adjectively^  and  qtdd  substantively. 

Note  2.— Aliquis  has  aliqua  instead  of  aliquae  in  the  Fem.  Sing,  and  Neut.  Plur. 
Aliqul  for  aliquis  occurs. 

191.  The  correspondence  which  exists  between  Demonstratives,  Rela- 
tives, Interrogatives,  and  Indefinites,  is  seen  in  the  following 

Table  op  Correlatives. 


1  In  Unus-quisque  both  parts  are  regularly  declined. 

2  Observe  that  the  question  quis  or  qui,  who  or  what?  may  be  answered  indefi- 
nitely by  quis^  qui^  aliquis^  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a  demonstrative,  either  alone  or  with 
a  relative,  as  by  Ale,  this  one,  or  hVi  qul^  this  one  who;  is^  he,  or  is  qul^  he  who,  etc. 

^  In  form  observe  that  the  indefinite  is  either  the  same  as  the  interrogative  or  is  a 
compound  of  it :  quds,  ali-quis,  qu%  qul-dam^  and  that  the  relative  is  us^ially  the  same 
as  the  interrogative. 

*  On  Mc,  iste^  ille,  and  is,  see  450;  451, 1. 

*  Or  one  of  the  demonstratives,  hlc^  iste^  etc. 


^ 


78  •  VERBS, 

CHAPTEK    IV. 

VERBS. 

192.  Verbs  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  exiDress  existence, 
condition,  or  action:  est,  he  is;  dormit,  he  is  sleeping; 
legit,  he  reads. 

193.  Verbs  comprise  two  principal  classes: 

I.  Transitive  Verbs  admit  a  direct  object  of  tlie  action : 
servimi  verier  at,  he  beats  the  slave/ 

II.  Intransitive  Verbs  do  not  admit  such  an  object : 
puer  ciirrit,  the  boy  runs.* 

1 94.  Verbs  have  Voice,  Moocl^  Tense,  Nuiiibcr,  and  Person. 

I.  Voices. 

195.  There  are  two  voices: 

I.  The  Active  Voice'  represents  the  subject  as  acting 
or  EXISTING :  pater  f  Ilium  amat,  the  father  loves  his  son; 
est,  he  is. 

II.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
uroN  by  some  other  person  or  thing :  fllius  a  patre  amd- 
tier,  the  son  is  loved  bv  his  father. 

1.  Intransitive  Verbs  generally  have  only  the  active  voice,  but  are  some- 
times used  impersonally  in  the  passive  ;  see  301,  1. 

2.  Deponent  Verbs 3  are  Passive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense:  loquor,  to 
speak.     But  see  JJ31. 

II.  Moods. 

1 96.  There  are  three  moods :  * 


VERBS, 


79 


>  Here  sermim,  'the  slave;  is  the  object  of  the  action  :  heats  (what?)  the  ulate.  The 
object  thus  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb.  He  heats  is  incomplete  in  sense,  but  the 
hoy  runs  is  complete,  and  accordingly  does  not  admit  an  object. 

2  Voice  shows  whether  the  subject  acts  (Active  Voice),  or  is  a^tcd  vpon  (Passive 
Voice).  Thus,  with  the  Active  Voice,  *■  the  father  loves  his  son,^  the  f^\\h}o,Qt^  father,  is 
the  one  who  performs  the  action^  loves,  while  with  the  Passive  Voice,  't/ie  son  is  lorcd 
hy  the  father^  the  subject,  son,  merely  receives  the  action^  is  acted  tpon,  is  toved. 

3  So  called  from  depono,  to  lay  aside,  as  they  dispense,  in  general,  with  the  active 
form  and  the  passive  meaning.  For  deponent  verbs  with  the  sense  of  the  Greek  Middle, 
see  465. 

*  Mood,  or  3fode,  means  manner,  and  relates  to  the  manner  in  which  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  is  expressed,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing  the  force  of  the  several  Moods. 


I.  The  Indicative  Mood  either  asserts  something  as  a 
/ad  or  inquires  after  the /ad: 

Lcgit^  HE  is  reading.  Legitne^  is  he  reading  ?  Servius  regimvit^  Scr- 
lilts  REIGNED.     Quis  cgo  swm,  w/io  AM  I^ 

II.  The  Subjunctive  Mood  expresses  not  an  actual  fact, 
but  a  possibility  or  conception.     It  is  best  translated ' — 

1.  Sometimes  by  the  English  auxiliaries,^  let^  may,  mighty  sJiould, 

would : 

A^riemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country,  Sint  beati,  may  they  be 
hippy,  Quaerat  quispiara,  some  one  may  inquire.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no  one 
WOULD  say  this.  Ego  censeam,  I  should  think,  or  /  am  inclined  to  think. 
Enititur  ut  vincaty  he  stHves  that  he  may  conquer. ^  Domum  ubi  habitdret, 
legit,  he  selected  a  ho  use  where  he  might  dwell. 

2.  Sometimes  by  the  Enghsh  Indicative,  especially  by  the  Future 
forms  with  shall  and  will : 

Huic  ceddmuSy  shall  we  yield  to  this  one?  Quid  dies/era^  incertuin  est, 
what  a  day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Dubito  num  debeaniy  I  doubt 
whether  I  ought.     Quaes! vit  si  liceret^  he  inquired  whether  it  was  lawful. 

3.  Sometimes  by  the  Imperative^  especially  in  prohibitions  : 

Scrlbere  ne  pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write,  Ne  trdnsierls  Iberum,  do 
not  cross  the  Ebro, 

4.  Sometimes  by  the  English  Infinitive:^ 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer,  s  MIssI  sunt  qui  cdnsidercfii 
Apollinem,  they  were  sent  to  consult  Apollo, 

III.  The  Imperative  Mood  expresses  a  command  or  an 
entreaty : 

Justitiam  colcy  practise  jmiice.     Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to  mis- 
fortunes, 

*_ i 

>  The  use  and  proper  translation  of  the  Subjunctive  must  be  learned  from  the  Syn- 
tax. A  few  illustrations  are  here  given  to  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  Para- 
digms of  the  Verbs;  see  477-530. 

2  This  is  generally  the  proper  translation  in  simple  sentences  and  in  principal  clauses 
(483),  and  sometimes  even  in  subordinate  clauses  (490). 

^  Or,  he  strives  to  conquer;  see  4  below,  with  foot-note  4. 

<  The  English  has  a  few  remnants  of  the  Subjunctive  Mood,  which  may  also  be  used 
in  translating  the  Latin  Subjunctive:  Utinam  possem,  woidd  that  I  were  able. 

6  Observe,  however,  that  the  Infinitive  here  is  not  the  translation  of  the  Subjunc- 
tive alone,  but  of  the  Subjunctive  with  its  subject  and  connective :  ut  vincat,  to  con- 
quer (lit.,  that  he  may  conquer)',  qui  consulerent,  to  consult  (lit.,  who  should  or  would 
consult). 


80 


VERBS, 


III.   Tenses. 

1 97.  There  are  six  tenses  : 

I.  Three  Tekses  for  Incomplete  Actioi^-: 

1.  Present:  amo,  I  love,  I  am  loving.* 

2.  Imperfect :  amabam,  I  was  loving,  I  loved. 

3.  Future :  amdhoy  I  shall  love,  I  will  love. 

II.  Three  Tekses  for  Completed  AcTioiq": 

1.  Perfect :  amdvly  I  have  loved,  I  loved. 

2.  Pluperfect :  amdveram^  I  had  loved. 

3.  Future  Perfect :  amdvero,  I  shall  have  loved. 

Note  1.— The  Latin  Perfect  sometimes  corresponds  to  our  Perfect  with 
have  {have  loved)^  and  is  called  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite;  and 
sometimes  to  our  Imperfect  or  Past  {loved)^  and  is  caUed  the  Historical  Per- 
fect or  Perfect  Indefinite.^ 

Note  2.— The  Indicative  Mood  has  aH  the  six  tenses ;  the  Subjunctive  has 
the  Present,  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect ;  the  Imperative,  the  Present 
and  Future  only.* 

198.  Principal  and  Historical.— Tenses  are  also  distin- 
guished as — 

I.  Principal  or  Previary  Tenses: 

1.  Present:  am5^  I  love. 

2.  Present  Perfect :  amdv\  I  have  loved.' 

3.  Future :  amdbd,  I  shall  love. 

4.  Future  Perfect :  amdverd,  1  shall  have  loved. 

II.  Historical  or  Secondary  Tenses: 

1.  Imperfect:  amabam,  I  w^as  loving. 

2.  Historical  Perfect :  amdvl,  I  loved.  ^ 

3.  Pluperfect :  amdveram^  I  had  loved. 


1  Or,  /  do  Ime.  The  English  did  may  also  be  used  in  translating  the  Imperfect  and 
Perfect:  I  did  love, 

2  Or,  I  will  ha^e  loved. 

3  Thus  the  Latin  Perfect  combines  within  itself  the  force  and  use  of  two  distinct 
tenses— the  Perfect  p^^oper,  seen  in  the  Greek  Perfect,  and  the  Aorist,  seen  in  the  Greelc 
Aorist:  amavi  =  TTCi^tAiyica,  /  have  loved;  amavi  =  €<f>C\'n(ra,  I  loved.  The  Historical 
Perfect  and  the  Imperfect  both  represent  the  action  as  past,  but  the  former  regards 
it  simply  as  a  historical  fact— I  loved;  while  the  latter  regards  it  as  in  progress— I 
was  loving,    . 

*  The  nice  distinctions  of  tense  have  been  fully  developed  only  in  the  Indicative.  In 
the  Subjunctive  and  Imperative,  the  time  of  the  action  is  less  prominent  and  is  less  defi- 
nitely marked. 


VERBS, 


81 


199.  Numbers  and  Persons. — There  are  two  numbers, 
Singular  and  Plural/  and  three  persons,  First,  Sec- 
ond, and  Third.' 

Note. — The  various  verbal  forms  whicli  have  voice,  mood,  tense,  number, 
and  person,  make  up  the  finite  verb, 

200.  Among  verbal  forms  are  included  the  following 
verbal  nouns  and  adjectives : 

I.  The  Infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun.^  It  is  sometimes  best  trans- 
lated by  the  English  Infinitive^  sometimes  by  the  verbal  noun  in  ing, 
and  sometimes  by  the  Indicative : 

Exire  ex  urbe  volo,  /  wisJi  to  go  out  of  the  city,  Gestio  scire  omnia,  /  long 
TO  KNOW  all  things.  Haec  scire  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure, 
Peccdre  licet  nemini,  to  sin  is  lawful  for  no  one,  Vincere  ^  scis,  you  know 
Jiow  to  conquer,  or  you  understand  conquering.^  Te  dicunt  esse*  sapien- 
tem,  they  say  that  you  are*  wise.  Sentlmus  cal'ere*  ignem,  we  perceive  that 
fire  IS  hot.*    See  also  Syntax,  533-539. 

II.  The  Gerund  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of 
a  verbal  noun  of  the  second  declension,  used  only  in  the  genitive^ 
dative,  accusative,  and  ablative  singular.  It  corresponds  to  the  Eng- 
lish verbal  noun  in  ing  : 

Amandl,  of  loving.  Amandl  causa,  for  the  sahe  of  loving.  Ars  Viven- 
di, the  art  of  living.  Cupidus  te  audiendl,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Utilis 
bibendo,  useful  for  drinking.  Ad  discendum  propensus,  inclined  to  learn,» 
or  TO  LEARNING.  Meus  disccndo  alitur,  the  mind  is  nourished  by  learning. 
See  also  Syntax,  541-544. 

III.  The  Supine  gives  the  meaning  of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  a 
verbal  noun  of  the  fourth  declension.  It  has  a  form  in  urn  and  a 
form  in  u : 

Amdtum,  to  love,  for  loving.     Amdtu,  to  be  loved,  for  loving,  in 

1  As  in  Nouns;  see  44. 

2  The  Infinitive  has  the  characteristics  both  of  verbs  and  of  nouns.  As  a  verb,  it  gov- 
erns oblique  cases  and  takes  adverbial  modifiers ;  as  a  noun,  it  is  itself  governed.  In 
origin  it  is  a  verbal  noun  in  the  Dative  or  Locative.    See  Jolly,  pp.  179-200. 

3  Observe  that  the  infinitive  vincere  may  be  translated  by  the  English  infinitive,  to 
conquer^  or  by  the  verbal  noun,  conquering. 

4  Observe  that  the  infinitives  esse  and  calere  are  translated  by  the  indicative  are  and 
is  {is  hot) ;  and  that  the  Ace.  te,  the  subject  of  esse,  is  translated  by  the  Norn,  you,  the 
subject  of  are;  and  that  the  Ace.  ignem,  the  subject  of  oalere,  is  translated  by  the  Nom. 
fire,  the  subject  of  is. 

6  Occasionally  the  Gerund,  especially  with  a  preposition,  may  be  thus  translated  by 

the  English  infinitive. 


82 


VERBS. 


LOVING.     Auxilium  postuldtum  vtnit,  he  ca?ne  to  ask  aid.    Difficile  diciu  est, 
it  is  difficult  TO  tell.     See  Syntax,  645-547. 

NoTE.—The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative  in  form,  while  the  Supine  in 
it  may  be  either  a  Dative  or  an  Ablative ;  see  116. 

IV.  The  Participle  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  gives  the  meaning 
of  the  verb  in  the  form  of  an  adjective.^  It  is  sometimes  l}cst 
translated  by  the  English  Participle  or  Infinitive^  and  sometimes 
by  a  Clause  : 

AmdnSj  loving.  Amdturus^  about  to  love.  Amdtus,  loved.  Aman- 
dus,  DESERVING  TO  BE  LOVED.  Plato  scrlbms  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while 
wPwiTiNo,  or  WHILE  HE  WAS  WRITING.  Sol  ot'ieus  dicHi  conficit,  the  sun  rising, 
or  WHEN  IT  RisEs,2  causes  the  day.  Rediit  belli  casum  tentdtur^s^  he  returned 
TO  TRY  (lit.,  about  to  try)  the  fortune  of  war.  In  amicis  eligendls^^  in  select- 
ing friends.     See  Syntax,  548-550. 

Note.— A  Latin  verb  may  have  four  participles :  two  in  the  Active,  the 
Present  and  the  Future,  amdns^  amdturus  ;  and  two  in  the  Passive,  the  Per- 
fect and  the  Gerundive,^  amdtus^  amandus. 

CONJUGATION. 

201.  Regular  verbs  are  inflected,  or  conjugated,  in  four 
different  waj^s,  and  are  accordingly  divided  into  Four  Con- 
jugations/ distinguished  from  each  other  by  the  stem  char- 
acteristics or  by  the  endings  of  the  Infinitive,  as  follows : 

Coiirj.  I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

202.  Pkikcipal  Parts.— The  Present  Indicative,  Pres- 
ent Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative,  and  Supine  are  called 
from  their  importance  the  Principal  Parts  of  the  verb. 


Chabacteristics. 

I^'FINITIVE  Endi> 

a 

a-re 

e 

e-re 

e 

ere 

1 

ire 

1  Participles  are  verbs  in  force,  but  adjectives  in  form  and  inflection.  As  verbs,  they 
govern  oblique  cases ;  as  adjectives,  they  agree  with  nouns. 

^  Or  by  its  rising. 

3  Sometimes  called  the  Future  Passive  Participle.  In  agreement  with  a  noun,  it 
is  often  best  translated  like  a  gerund  governing  that  noun ;  see  544. 

*  The  Four  Conjugations  are  only  varieties  of  one  general  system  of  inflection,  as  the 
differences  between  them  have  been  produced  in  the  main  by  the  union  of  different  final 
letters  in  the  various  stems  with  one  general  system  of  suffixes;  see  Comparative  View 
of  Conjutrations,  3 1 3-2 1 6. 


VERBS. 


83 


Note  1.— In  the  inflection  of  verbs  it  is  found  convenient  to  recognize  four 

stems : 

1)  The  Verb-Stem,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  entire  conjugation.    This  is 

often  called  simply  the  Stem. 

2)  Three  Special  Stems,  the  Present  Stem,  the  Perfect  Stem,  and  the  Su- 
pine Stem. 

Note  2.— The  Special  Stems  are  formed  from  the  Verb-Stem,  unless  they 

arc  identical  with  it.^ 

203.  The  Entire  Conjugation  of  any  regular  verb 
may  be  readily  formed  from  the  Principal  Parts  by  means 
of  the  proper  endings.^ 

1.  Sum,  /  am,  is  used  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  passive  voice  of  regular 
verbs.  Accordingly,  its  conjugation,  though  quite  irregular,  must  be  given 
at  the  outset.     The  Principal  Parts  are — 

Pbes.  Indic.  Pres.  Infin.  Perf.  Indic. 

sum, /am,  esse,  ^o  6e,  im,  I  have  hem. 

Note  1. — Sum  has  no  Supine. 

Note  2.— Two  independent  stems  or  roots  3  are  used  in  the  conjugation  of 
this  verb,  viz. :  (1)  es,  seen  in  s-um  (for  es-um)  and  in  esse,  and  (2)  fu,  seen 
in  fu-i.  _^ 

1  For  the  treatment  of  Stems,  see  249-256.  In  many  verbs  the  stem  is  itself  de- 
rived from  a  more  primitive  form  called  a  Root.  For  the  distinction  between  roots  and 
stems,  and  for  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  are  formed  from  the  former,  see  313-318. 

2  In  the  Paradigms  of  regular  verbs,  the  endings  which  distinguish  the  various  forms 
are  separately  indicated,  and  should  be  careftiUy  noticed.  In  the  parts  derived  from  the 
present  stem  (222, 1.)  each  ending  contains  the  characteristic  vowel. 

3  The  forms  of  irregular  verbs  are  often  derived  from  different  roots.  Thus  in  Eng- 
lish, am,  was,  been ;  go,  went,  gone.  Indeed,  the  identical  roots  used  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  sum  are  in  constant  use  in  our  ordinary  speech.  The  root  es,  Greek  €?,  originally 
as,  is  seen  in  am  (for  as-mi),  art  (for  as-t),  are  (for  as-e)',  the  root  fu,  Greek  <f)v,  origi- 
nally bhu,  is  seen  in  be  (for  bhe),  been.  The  close  relationship  existing  between  the 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  is  seen  in  the  following  comparative  forms ;  €0-<rt  is 
Homeric,  and  k-vri  Doric: 

Sanskrit.  Greek.  Latin.  English. 


as-mi 

as-1 

as-ti 

s-mas 

8-tha 

8-anti 


et-/utt 
(E<r-<rt 
ccr-Tt 
ea-fjiev  for  €<r-/x€5 

€0"-T€ 

e-vri  for  ea-vri 


6-um 

es 

es-t 

s-umus 

es-tis 

8-unt 


a-m 
ar-t 
Is 

are 
ar-e 
ar-e 


Every  verbal  form  is  thus  made  by  appending  to  the  stem,  or  root,  a  pronominal  ending 
meaning  /,  thou,  he,  etc.  Thus  mi,  seen  in  the  English  me,  means  /.  It  is  retained  in 
as-mi  and  ti-fii,  but  shortened  to  m  in  s-u-m  and  a-m.  Ti,  meaning  he,  is  preserved 
in  as-ti  and  ^<r-Ti,  but  shortened  to  t  in  es-t  and  lost  in  is.  The  stem  also  undergoes 
various  changes:  in  Sanskrit  it  is  as,  sometimes  shortened  to  s;  in  Greek  e^,  sometimes 
shortened  to  e;  in  Latin  es,  sometimes  shortened  to  s,  as  in  Sanskrit;  in  English  a,  ar, 
or  is. 


I   • 


84 


VERBS, 


204.  Sum,  /«m.— Stems,  es,  fu. 


Pre8.  Ind. 
sum. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine,  i 

esse,  fui,  _ 


es, 
est, 


Z^O^  V 


erain, 

eras, 
erat. 


erd,^ 
eris, 
erit, 

ful, 
fulstl, 

fuit. 


fueram, 

fueras, 
fuerat, 

fuer^, 

fuerfs, 

fiierit, 


SINGULAR. 

/am, 
thou  ari^ 
he  is  ; 

IwaSy 
thou  wdst^^ 

he  was  ;    ^» 

I  shall  bcy^ 
thou  wilt  he, 
he  vjill  be  ; 

I  have  heen^ 
thou  hast  becn^ 

he  has  been  ; 


I  had  beeriy 
thou  hadst  been, 
he  had  been  ; 


Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 


PLURAL. 


vje  are. 


sumiis, 

estis, 

Slllit, 

Imperfect. 

eramiis, 

eratis, 

erant. 

Future. 

erimiis, 

erifis, 
emnt, 

Perfect. 

fuiiiiiis, 

fulstis, 

fuSrunt, 

fu€re, 

Pluperfect. 

f ueramus,  we  had  been, 
fueratis,     you  had  been, 
f  uerant,      they  had  been. 


you  arCy 
they  are, 

we  were^ 
you  were^ 
they  were, 

we  shall  be^ 
you  will  be^ 
they  will  be, 

we  have  been, 
you  have  been^ 


>  they 


have  been. 


Future  Perfect. 


I  shall  have  been, 
tliou  xGilt  have  been, 
he  will  have  been  ; 


f  uertmiis,  we  shall  have  been, 
f uerttis,  you  will  have  been, 
f  uerint,        they  will  have  been. 


^  The  Supine  is  wanting. 

2  Sum  is  for  emm,  eram  for  esam.  Whenever  «  of  the  stem  es  comes  between  two 
vowels,  e  is  dropped,  as  in  stim,  sunt,  or  s  is  changed  to  r,  as  in  eram,  erd;  see  31  1. 
The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  endings  which  are  added  to  the  roots  es  and/w  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  type. 

3  Or  you  are,  and  in  the  Imperfect,  you  were;  thou  is  confined  mostly  to  solemn 
discourse. 

*  In  verbs,  final  o,  marked  6,  is  generally  long, 
^r,  Future,  I  will  he  ;  Perfect,  I  was  ;  see  197,  note  1. 


'1 
I 


sim, 

sis, 

sit, 

cssem, 

esses, 
esset, 

fuerim, 

fuerfs, 
fuerit, 

fuissem, 

fuisses, 
fuisset, 

Pres.    ef«, 

Fut.     estO, 
estd, 


SINGULAR. 

may  I  be^ 

mayst  thou  be^ 

let  him  be,  may  he  be  ; 


VERBS. 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 


85 


/  should  be,^ 
thou  wouldst  be, 
he  would  be; 


I  may  have  bee^i,^ 
thou  mayst  have  been, 
he  may  have  been  ; 


SlItiU<$, 

sitis, 
sint. 

Imperfect. 

ess^mus, 

essetis, 

essent. 

Perfect. 

fuerfmiis. 

fueritis, 

fueriiit. 


PLURAL. 

let  us  be, 

be  ye,  may  you  be, 

let  them  be. 

we  should  be, 
you  would  be, 
they  would  be. 

we  may  have  been, 
you  may  have  been^ 
they  may  have  been. 


I  should  han)e  been, 
thou  wouldst  have  been, 
he  would  have  been  ; 


Pluperfect. 


fuisseiKius,  we  should  have  been, 
fuissetis,     you  would  have  been, 

they  would  have  been. 


be  thou, 

thou  shall  be^ 
he  shall  be  ;  * 


fuisisent, 

Imperative. 

este, 

estote, 
suntO, 


be  ye, 

ye  shall  be, 
they  shall  be. 


Infinitive. 

Pres.    esse,   to  be, 
Perf.    fuisse,  to  have  been, 
Fut.     futurus  esse,-*  to  be  about 
to  be. 


Participle. 


Fut.  futftms,*  about  to  be. 


1.  In  the  Paradigm  all  the  forms  begimiing  with  eor  s  are  from  the  stem 
es  ;  all  others  from  the  stem  fu.^ 

2.  Eare  Forms  -.—forem,  fores^  foret,  forent,  fore,  for  es-^em,  esses,  esset, 
e<^sent,  futurus  esse;  stem,  sies,  siet,  sient,  orfuam,  fuas,  fuat,  fuant,  for  sim, 
sis,  sit,  sint,  ^ _^ 

1  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  IL,  and  remember  that  it  is  often 
best  rendered  by  the  Indicative.  Thus,  sim  may  often  be  rendered  lam,  and  fuerim,  I 
have  been. 

*•'  Or  be  thou,  or  may  you  be. 

3  The  Fut.  may  also  be  rendered  like  the  Pres.,  or  with  let:  be  thou  ;  let  him  be. 

*  Futurus  is  declined  like  bonus.    8o  in  the  Infinitive :  futurus,  a,  um  esse. 

»  Es  and/t^  are  rooU  as  well  as  stems.  As  the  basis  of  this  paradigm  they  are  prop- 
erly stems,  but  as  they  are  not  derived  from  more  primitive  forms,  they  are  in  them- 
selves roots. 


86 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION  :   A  VERBS. 
205.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,  Hove, 

Verb  Stem  ani^  ^Present  Stem,  amd} 


Pre8.  Ind. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind.  Supine. 


amare,  amarl, 

Indicative  Mood. 


amatunftv 


am6,* 
amas^, 
amat, 


SINGULAR. 

/  lovc,'^ 
you  love,^ 
Il€  loves  ; 


Present  Tense. 


amai>a]u, 

amaba.«», 
amabat, 

amabd, 

amabis, 

amablt, 

amSvI, 

amavlstl, 

amavit, 


/  was  loving^ 
you  were  lovijig^ 
he  was  loving  ,\ 

I  shall  love^^ 
you  loill  love, 
he  will  love  ; 


I  have  loved^ 
you  have  loved, 
he  has  loved  ; 


amamui^, 

amatis, 

amaut, 

Imperfect. 

amabamitis, 

amabatiN, 

amabaiit, 

Future. 

amabiiiiu<9, 

amabiti^, 

amabunt, 

Perfect. 

amavimiis, 
amavlstis, 


PLURAL. 

ivc  love, 
you  love, 
they  love. 


we  were  loving, 
you  were  loving, 
(hey  were  loving, 

we  shall  love, 
you  will  love, 
they  loill  love, 

we  have  loved, 
you  have  loved, 


amaveram,  I  had  loved, 
amaveras,     you  had  loved, 
amaverat,     he  had  loved; 


amav^Brunt,  ere,  they  have  loved. 
Pluperfect. 

amaveramus,  wc  had  loved, 
amaveratis,     you  had  loved, 
amaverant,      tJicy  had  loved. 


amaver^, 

amaverts, 

amaverit. 


Future  Perfect. 


/  shall  have  loved,^ 
you  will  have  loved, 
he  will  have  loved  ; 


amavertniws,  we  shall  have  loved, 
amaverttis,  you  will  have  loved, 
amaverint,        they  will  have  loved. 


1  The  final  a  of  the  stem  disappears  in  am6  for  ama-S,  amem,  ames,  etc.,  for  amn- 
im,  ama-i8,  etc.  Also  in  the  Pass,  in  amor  for  ama-or,  amer,  etc.,  for  ama-ir  etc.  * 
see  »3 ;  27.     Final  o,  marked  6,  is  {generally  lon^. 

2  Or  law.  lorlnrj^  T do  love.    So  in  the  Imperfect,  /  loved,  I  was  loring,  I  did  lore. 

3  Or  tTwu  loveM.    So  in  the  other  tenses,  thou  wast  laving,  thou  icilt  love,  etc. 

*  Or  Twill  love     So  In  the  Future  Perfect,  1  shall  have  loved  or  /  will  have  Uyved, 
5  Or  I  loved;  see  197,  note  1. 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 


87 


amem, 

am€s, 

amet, 


amarem, 

amar€s, 
amaret, 


amaverint, 

amaverts, 

amaverit, 


SINGULAR. 

may  I  love,^ 
may  you  love, 
let  him  love  ; 


Subjunctive. 

Presj^I. 

ami^mus, 

ament, 


PLURAL. 

Ut  us  love, 
may  you  love, 
let  them  love. 


I  should  love, 
you  would  love, 
he  would  love  ; 


Imperfect. 

amariginus,  we  should  love, 
amarStis,  you  would  love, 
amarent,         tliey  would  love. 

Perfect. 


I  may  have  loved^ 
you  may  have  loved, 
he  may  have  loved ; 


amaverimas,  ive  may  have  loved, 
amaverttis,     you  may  have  loved, 
amaverint,      they  may  Jiave  loved. 


Pluperfect. 

ama'vissem,    I  should  have  loved,       2imeL\\ss^mw.fi!i,wc  should  have  loved, 
amav4ss€s,      you  would  have  loved,  i  amavissCtis,  you  would  have  loved. 


amavisset, 


he  ivould  have  loved  ;    amavissent,    they  ivould have  loved. 


Pres.  am  a,        love  thou  ; 

Fut,    amatd,   thou  shall  love, 
amatO,  he  shall  love  ; 


Imperative. 

amate, 

amat&te, 
amantd, 


love  ye, 

ye  shall  love, 
they  shall  love. 


Infinitive. 

Pres,  amare,         to  love, 
Perf.  amavisse,   to  have  loved. 
Put,    am  a  tar  as  'esse,  to  be  about 
A      to  love. 

^-^  Gerund. 

Gen.  amandl,         of  loving, 

Dat.  amando,       for  loving. 

Ace.  amandani,  loving, 

Abl,  amando,        by  loving. 


Participle. 

Pres,  amans,*  loving. 

Fut,    amatilrus,'  about  to  love. 

Supine. 


Ace.   amatum, 
Abl.   amatfli,  ' 


to  love,  * 

to  love,  be  loved. 


^  On  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2  Often  best  rendered  I  have  loved.    So  in  the  Pluperfect,  /  had  loved;  see  196,  IL 

8  Decline  like  bonus,  148. 

*  For  declension,  see  167. 


88 


FIRST  CONJUGATION. 


FIRST  CONJUGATION:   A  VERBS. 
206.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  ama. 


Pkes.  Ind. 

amor, 


SINGULAR. 

amor 

amftris,  or  re 
amd^tur 


am&bar 

amabilris,  or  re 
amabatur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pre8.  Inf. 

am^rl, 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  am  loved. 


Pebf.  Ind. 
am  at  us  sum. 


Imperfect. 
/  was  loved. 


PLURAL. 

amamur 

amaminl 

amantur 


amabamur 
amabaminl 
amabantur 


Future. 
Isliall  or  will  be  loved 


^ 


amabor 

amaberis,  o)*^  re 
amabitur       ,  \ 

Perfectt. 
I  have  been  loved  or  /was  loved. 
amatus  suni^^ 


amabimur 

amabiminl 

amabuntur 


amatns  es 
amatus  est 


amatits  eram' 
amatus  eras 
amatus  erat 


Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  loved. 


amati  sumns 
amati  e^tis 
amatI  sunt 


amatI  eramus 
amatI  eratis 
amatI  erant 


Future  Perfect. 
/shall  or  will  have  been  loved. 


amatus  erd  ^ 
amatus  eris 
amatus  erit 


amatI  erimus 
amatI  eritis 
amatI  erimt 


I  Fui,  fulstl,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  <mm,  es,  etc. :  amatus  ful  for  amatue 
sum.    So  fueram,  fueras,  etc.,  for  eram,  etc. :  also  fuerd,  etc.,  for  erd,  etc. 


f 


SINGULAR. 

amer 

ameris,  or  re 
am^tur 


PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 
May  I  be  loved^  let  him  he  loved.^ 

PLURAL. 

am^mur 

ameminl 

amentnr 


89 


Imperfect. 
I  should  be  loved,  he  would  be  loved.^ 


amarer 

amar^ris,  or  re 
amaretur 


amaremur 

amSlf^minl 

amarentur 


Perfect. 


I  may  have  been  loved,  or  I  have  been  loved.^  ^ 


amatus  sim' 

amatus  sis 
amatus  sit 


amatI  slmus 
amatl  sitis 
amatl  sint 


Pluperfect. 

I  should  have  beat  loved,  he  would  have  been  loved.^ 

amatl  ess^mus 
amatl  ess^tis 
amatl  esseut 


amatus  essem* 

amatus  esses   -^'\ 
amatus  esset 


"^ 


Pres.  amare,    be  ffiou  %ved ; 

\tt.    amator,  thou  shalt  be  loved, 
amator,  he  shall  be  loved  ; 


LVIPERATIVE. 


X 


I      amaminl,  be  ye  loved. 


amantor,  they^hall  be  loved. 


Infinitive, 

Pres.  amarl,  to  be  loved. 

Perf.  amatus  esse,*  to  have  been 

loved. 
Fut.    amatum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  loved. 


"A 


PARTIcl[PLl^ 


>. 


Perf.  amatus,  hx^m^  been  loved. 

Ger}  amaiMlus,  to  be  loved,  de- 
se7'viny  to  be  loved,    v 


1  But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II.  ?^;  ,;   ». 

2  Fuerim,fuerl8,  etc.,  are  sometimes  used  for  sim,  ms,  etc.— So  &\so  fuissem^/uideea^ 
etc.,  for  essem^  esseSy  etc. :  T&re\yfuis8e  for  esse.  ^ 

3  (?er.  =  Gerundive ;  see /JOO,  IV.,  note.  •       ^ 


X 


90 


i 


SECOND   CONJUGATION, 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:  E  VERBS. 


•207.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Moneo,  I  advise. 

Verb  Stem,  mon^  moni;  Present  Stem,  mond. 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 


Pees.  Ind.                  Pees.  Inf. 

Pkbf 

.  Ind.                  Supine. 

moneo,                 mon^re,                   monu^             monituin. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

/  advise. 

plural. 

moned 

mon^mus 

inon6s 

monCtis   . 

monet 

iiioueiit 

Imperfect. 

( 

/ 

loas  advising^  or  I  advised. 

monl^baiii 

moDeb3.mitN 

mon4Bl>as 

monebatis 

monebut 

moD^l>ant 

4. 

Future. 

/  shall  or  will  advise 

1 

• 

mon^l>6 

monl^l^iiiiiis 

mon©l>is 

niouebitis 

mon^bit 

mon^buitt 

Perfect. 

I  have  advisedy  or  I  advised. 

monul 

/ 

iiionuimiis 

iiionulsti 

monulstis 

monuit 

monu^ruiit,  or  ©ri 

Pluperfect. 

« 

/  had  advised. 

monueram 

monueralmus 

monueras 

monuerfttis 

monuerat 

monuernnt 

monuerO 

monuerfs 

monuerit 


Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  advised. 

monuertmus 

monueritii» 

monuerint 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 


91 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 
May  I  advise^  let  him  advise,'^ 
singular.  plural. 


monea.ni 

moneas 

moneat 


moneamus 

moneatiis 

moneant 


Imperfect. 
/  should  advise^  he  would  advise. 


monSrem 

mon€r€s 

monSret 


moneresniis 

mon^retis 

mon^rent 


Perfect. 
I  may  have  advised^  or  I  have  advised."^ 


monuerun 

monuerfs 

monuerit 


monuertmus 

monueritis 

monuerint 


Pluperfect. 
/  should  have  advised^  he  would  have  advised.^ 


monuissem 

monuissSs 

monui^s^et 


monuissemus 

monuiss^tis 

monuissent 


Imperative. 

Pres.  mon^,         advise  thou ;  \  monSte,        advise  ye. 

Fut.    mon^tO,   thou  shall  advise j 
monSto,   he  shall  advise  ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  monCre,       to  advise. 
Perf.  monuisse,    to  have  advised. 
FtU.    monitfkrus  esse,  to  be  about 
to  advise. 


monCtote,  ye  shall  advise^ 
monento,    they  shall  advise. 

Participle. 

Pres.  monSns,        advising. 
Fut.    monitlirus,  abovi  to  advise. 


Gerund. 

Gen.  monendl, »      of  advising ^ 
Bat.  monendo,       for  advising^ 
Ace.   monenditm,  advmng^ 
A  bl.   monendo,       by  advising. 


Supine. 


Ace.   monitum,  to  advise^ 

Abl.   monitli.^  to  advise^  be  admscd. 


1  But  on  Ihe  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 

2  The  Pluperfect,  like  the  Perfect,  is  often  rendered  by  the  Indicative  :  /  had  ad' 
vised^  you  had  advixd^  etc. 


92 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


SECOND  CONJUGATION:   B  VERBS. 
208.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Moneor,/ am  a(/2;we(f. 

Verb  Stem,  mon^  moni;  Present  Stem,  mom. 


Pres.  Ind. 
moneor, 


SINGULAR. 

moneor 

mon^ris,  or  re 
monetur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf. 

monCri, 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  am  advised. 


Perf.  Ind. 
monitus  sum. 


PLURAL. 

mon^miir 
moneminl 

mouentur 


r. 


mon^bamur 

mon^bamiiil 

mon^bantiir 


Imperfect. 
/  wa^  advised, 
moneljar 
mon€l>aris,  or  re 
mon61>atitr 

Future. 
I  shall  or  will  be  advised, 

mon^bimnr 
mon^biminl 
mon^buntiir 
Perfect. 
I  have  been  advised^  I  was  advised. 
monitns  sum^ 
monitus  es 


monSbor 
moneberis,  or  re 
monebitiir 


monitus  est 


mokitl  sumus 
moniti  estis 
moniti  sunt 


Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  advised. 


monitus  eram^ 
monitus  erfts 
monitus  erat 


moniti  erftmus 
moniti  eratis 
moniti  erant 


Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  luill  have  been  advised. 


monitus  er6  ^ 
monitus  eris 
monitus  erit 


moniti  erimus 
moniti  erit  is 
moniti  erunt* 


»  See  206,  foot-notes. 


PASSIVE    VOICE, 


93 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 
May  I  be  advised^  let  him  be  advised. 


singular. 
monear 

monearis,  or  re 
moneatur 


plural. 
moneamur 
moneamiul 
moneantur 


Imperfect. 
/  slwuld  be  advised,  he  would  be  advised. 


monCrer 
mon^r^ris,  or  re 
mon©retur 


moner^Miur 
moneremini 

monerentur 


Perfect. 

I  may  have  been  advised,  or  I  have  been  advised, 

monitus  sim^ 
monitus  sis 
monitus  sit 


moniti  slmus 
moniti  sitis 
moniti  siut 


Pluperfect. 
I  slwuld  have  been  advised,  he  would  have  been  advised,^ 


monitus  essem ' 
monitus  ess^s 
monitus  esset 


moniti  essl^mus 
moniti  essetis 
moniti  essent. 


Imperative. 

Pres.  monere,     be  thou  advised ;      |  moneminl,  be  ye  advised. 

Put.    monitor,  thou  shall  be   ad- 
vised, 
monitor,  he  shall  be  advised  ; 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  mon©ri,  to  be  advised, 

Perf.  monitus  esse,^  to  have  been 

advised. 
Put.    monitum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  advised. 


moneutor,  they  shall  be  advhed. 

Participle. 


Perf.  monitus,  advised. 

Ger.    moneudus,  to  be  adviseJ^  de- 
serving to  be  advised. 


1  See  206,  foot-notes. 

2  Or  /  had  been  advised,  you  had  been  advised^  etc 


94 


THIRD    CONJUGATION, 


ACTIVE  VOICE, 


THIRD  CONJUGATION  :  ""CONSONANT  VERBS. 
209.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Rego,  I  rule. 

Verb  Stem,  reg ;  Present  Stem,  rege,"^ 


Pbes.  Ind. 
regd, 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Pres.  Inf.  Pekf.  Ind. 

regere,  rexl,'* 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
I  rule. 


Supine. 
rectum.^ 


SINGULAR. 

plural. 

reg6 

regiiiiiis    .^ 

regis 

regitis 

regit 

• 

regunt 

Imperfect. 

I  was  ruling^  or  li-uled. 

reg^bum 

reg^bftmus 

regCbfis 

regCbatis 

regCbat 

reg^bant 

Future. 

» 

/  shall  or  t^?7/  ?*«/e. 

I                                        regain 

rcg^miis 

reg©» 

regCti» 

reget 

regent 

Perfect. 

i 

/  have  ruled^  or  /  ruled. 

r6xl 

reximiis 

rexlstl 

rcxistis 

rexit 

rexeriint,  or  ^re 

Pluperfect. 

/  had  ruled.  ^ 

rexeram 

rexeramus 

rexerfts 

rexeratis 

rSxerat 

rexemnt 

Future  Perfect. 

I  shall  or  will  have  r^ded. 

rexerd 

rgxerimus 

rgxerfs 

rSxeritis 

i                                            rexerit 

rexerint 

*  The  characteristic  is  a 

♦4»1  a     »n11<.     ti.    l.\.  _      ^  1. t  •  .      

variable  vowel- 

-6,  u,  e,  i :  Tegd,  regt^nt,  regere,  regifi ;  Cur^ 

2  See  264;  30;  33,  1. 


»'1 


( 


\ 


\ 


\ 


■3 


0 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

• 

Mag  Iinde,  lei  him  rule} 

singular. 

PLURAL. 

regain 

regaimis 

rega» 

regat-is    \ 

regat 

i 

1   J 

regaiit       V 

'^       y 

tr           Imperfect. 

^ 

V 

I  should  rule^  he  would  rule. 

regerem 

regereniiis 

reger^s 

• 

reger^Ltis 

fegeret 

regeremt 

I 

Perfect. 

' 

/i 

mag  have  ruled^  or  I  have 

7*uled,               1 

rexerim 

rexerfnia» 

rexerfs 

rexerftis   \ 

rexerit 

rexerint 

Pluperfect. 
I  should  have  ruled^  lie  would  have  ruled. 


rexissem 

rexiss^s 
rexisset 


rexissemuy 

rexissetis 

rexiss-»ent 


Pi'cs,  rege,       7*ule  thou  ; 

Fut,    regitO,  thou  shall  rule^ 
regitd,  lie  shall  rule  ; 

Infinitive. 

regere,    to  rule, 
rexisse,  to  have  ruled. 
rectfkras  esi^e,*^o  f^e  about 
to  7nde, 

Gerund. 

Gen,  regendl,        of  ruling, 

Dot.  regendO,       for  tiling, 

Ace,  regendum,  ruling^ 

AM.  regendo,       hg  ruling. 


Imperative. 

I  regite,       'i'ule  ye, 

re^itote,  ye  shall  rule, 
reguntd,  they  shall  rule 


Pres, 
Perf 

Fut. 


95 


^ 


r.' 

Fat,    recifkrus,  about  tb  i^Ce, 

Supine,  i 


Ace.    rectam,  to  rule, 

Ahl.    rectCi,      to  i^le,  b?  ruled. 


y 


But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 


\ 


96 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


THIKD  CONJUGATION:    CONSONANT  VERBS. 
210.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,/ am  rw^c^. 

Verb  Stem,  reg ;  Present  Stem,  rege} 


Pees.  Ind. 

regor, 


SINGULAR. 
3g<WP 

(egeris,  or  re 
^gitur 


ireg61>air 
reg45bftris,  or  re 
i-egSbatiir 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 
Prks.  Inf. 

regl, 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tens^ 
I  am  ruled. 


Perf.  Ind. 
rectus^  sum. 


>  ;?LURAL. 

^giniiip 

regiminl 

regiintiir 


Imperfect. 
/  wm  ruled. 


Future. 
I  shall  or  will  he  ruled. 


i-egar 


reg©ris,  or  re 
tegCtur 


reg^bamur 
regCbaminl 
reg<^l>a|^r 

regl^mur 

regiminl 

regentur 


Perfect. 
IJiave  been  ruled^  or  Iioas  ruled. 


rectus  sum^ 
^gctus  es 
]|ectus  est 


Pluperfect. 
I  had  been  ruled. 


foetus  erani' 

t'ectus  eras 
rectus  erat 


1*6  ctl  sum  US 
I'gctI  estis 
^ectl  sunt 


recti  eranius 
A"ectl  erfttis 


V 


SctI  erant 


FuTrRE  Perfect. 
/  shall  or  will  have  been  ruled. 


rectus  er6' 
rectus  eris 
rectus  erit 


recti  eriniiss 
recti  erit  is 
^ctl  erunt 


1  See  309,  foot-notes. 


a  See  300,  foot-notes. 


I 


SINGULAR. 


regar 


PASSIVJE  VOICE. 

SUBJUJliDTIVE. 

^  Present. 

May  I  be  ruled,  let  him  he  ruled. 


regftris,  or  re 
regfttur 


PLURAL. 

regamur 

rcgamini 

regantur 


Imperfect. 

I  shoidd  be  rided,  he  tvould  he  ruled. 

regerer 

regereri.^*,  or  re 
regeretur 


regeremur 

regereuiiul 

regerentur 


Perfect. 


I  mag  have  been  ruled,  or  I  have  been  7*uled, 


rectus  sini^ 
rectus  sis 
rectus  sit 


recti  simus 
recti  sitis 
recti  sint 


Pluperfect. 
I  should  have  been  ruled,  he  loould  have  been  ruled. 

recti  essemus 


recti  ess^tis 
recti  essent 


r5ctus  essein  * 
*d  rectus  ess4Bs 
'Vectus  esset 

ImPERxVTIVE. 

Pres.  regere,    be  thou  ruled;  \  regiminl,  be  ye  ruled. 

Fut.    regitor,  thou  shall  be  routed, 
regitor,  he  shall  be  ruled ; 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  regl,  to  be  ruled. 

Pei'f.  rectus   esse,*   to  have  been 

ruled. 
Fut.    rectum  Iri,  to  he  about  to  be 

'i*uled. 


97 


reguntor,  they  shall  he  7*uled, 

Participle. 

Per/,  rectus,  ruled, 

Ger.    regendus,  to  be  ruled,  de- 
serving to  be  7niled. 


1  See  306,  foot-notes.  A 


V   < 


■ow»  I  ■  •    9m 


98 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION:  I  VERBS. 


211.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio, /7if«r. 

-Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  audi. 


miNCIPAL   PARTS. 


Pres.  Ind.               Prk3.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind.                     Supine. 

audid,                 audlrc,                    audlvl,                audltum. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

I  hear,           „rTT«.r 

PLURAL. 

audio 

audliiiiis 

audis 

audltis 

audit 

audiunt 

Imperfect. 

4 

/  vjas  hearing^  or  /  heard. 

audiebaiii 

audieb^miis 

audiebas 

audieba^tis 

audi^bat 

audil^bant 

Future. 

^ 

I  shall  or  loill  hear. 

audiani 

'/^ 

audiCniiis 

audies 

audietis 

audiet 

audient 

Perfect. 

/  have  heard,  or  /  Iieard. 

audlvi 

audiviiims 

audlvlsti 

audlvistis 

audlvit 

audi ver «.lit,  or  ©re 

Pluperfect. 

/  had  heard. 

audiveram 

L 

audlverS/iiius 

audiveras 

audiveratis 

audiverat 

audiverant 

Future  Perfect. 

• 

I  shall  or  will  have  heard. 

audlvcr^ 

audivertmiis 

au  diverts 

audiverttis 

au  diver  it 

audlverint 

ACTIVE   VOICE, 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 
May  I  hear,  let  him  hear} 


99 


SINGULAR. 

audlaiu 

audid/S 

audiat 


PLURAL. 

audiamus 

audiatis 
audiant 


Imperfect. 
/  should  hear,  he  loould  hear. 


audlrciii 

audlres 

audlret 


audlreiims 

audlretis 

audlreut 


Perfect. 
/  may  have  heard,  or  /  have  heard. 


audivcriiii 

audlverls 

audiverit 


audiverimus» 

audlveritis 

audlverint 


Pluperfect. 
I  should  have  heard,  he  would  have  heard. 


^IT 


Pres, 
Fut, 


auGivissem 

audlvisses 

audlvisset 


audi,        hear  thou  ; 

auditO,  thou  shall  hear, 
audita,  he  shall  hear  ; 


Pres, 
Perf. 
Fut, 


Gen. 
Bat, 
Ace. 
All. 


Infinitive. 

audire,  to  hear, 

audivisse,  to  have  heard. 

audltftrus  esse,  to  he  about 
to  hear. 

Gerund. 

audiendl,  of  liearing, 

audiemdo,  for  hearing, 

audieii<lui£i,  hearing, 

audiendo,  by  hearing. 


audiviss^imis 
audivissetis 
audi  vis  sent 

Imperative. 

I  audltc,         hear  ye. 

audi  tote,    ye  shall  hear, 
audinntO,  they  shall  hear. 

Participle. 

Pres.  audiCns,      hearing. 


Fut,    audlturus,  about  to  hear. 


Supine. 


Ace.    audltum,  to  hear, 

Ahl.    auditii,       to  hear,  he  heard. 


But  on  the  translation  of  the  Subjunctive,  see  196,  II. 


100 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION:    I  VERBS. 
212.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  lam  heard. 

Verb  Stem  and  Present  Stem,  audi. 


Pres.  Ind. 
audior, 


SINGULAR. 

audior 

audiris,  or  re 
auditur 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pbes.  Inf. 
audiri, 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
lam  heard. 


Peef.  Ind. 
audltus  sum. 


PLURAL, 

audliitur 

audiniinl 

audiiintui* 


Imperfect. 
/  loas  heard. 


audi451>a]* 
audiebaris,  or  i*c 
audiebsltur 


audi^baitiur 

audie1>a>iniui 

audiebantur 


audiar 

audieris,  or  re 
audietiir 


Future. 
I  shall  or  toill  be  heard. 

audi^inur 
audiemiul 
audieutur 

Perfect. 
/  have  been  heard,  or  /  ivas  heard. 


auditus  suiii^ 

audltiis  OS 
audltiis  est 


auditl  suiiius 
auditl  estis 
audltl  sunt 


Pluperfect. 
/  had  been  heard. 


audrtus  eram^ 
audltus  eras 
auditus  erat 


audltl  erftmus 
audit!  eratis 
audltl  era.nt 


Future  Perfect. 
I  shall  or  will  have  been  heard. 


auditus  er6* 
auditus  eris 
auditus  erit 


audltl  erimus 
audltl  eritis 
audltl  eruut 


PASSIVE   VOICE. 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

May  I  be  heard,  let  him  be  heard. 

singular. 
audiar 

audiaris,  or  re 
audiatur 


plural. 
audiamur 
audiamini 
audiautur 


Imperfect. 


audlrer 

audlreris,  or  re 
audlr^tur 


Id  be  heard,  he  would  be  heard. 

audlreniur 

audlremiul 

audlrentur 


Perfect. 
I  may  have  been  hcard^  or  I  have  been  heard. 


auditus  sin&^ 
auditus  sis 
auditus  sit 


audltl  simus 
audltl  sltis 
audit!  sint 


Pluperfect. 
I  should  have  been  heard,  he  would  have  been  Jieard. 


auditus  essem^ 
auditus  esses 
auditus  esset 


audit!  essemus 
audit!  essetis 
audit!  essent 


Imperative. 

Pres.  audlre,    be  iliou  heard ;  |   aud!niin!,    be  ye  heard. 

Fut,    auditor,  thou  shall  be  heard, 
auditor,  he  shall  be  heard  ; 


101 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  audlrl,  to  be  heard. 

Perf.  auditus  esse,^  to  have  been 

heard. 
Fut.    auditum  Irl,  to  be  about  to 

be  heard. 


audiuntor,  they  shall  be  heard. 

Participle. 

Perf.  auditus,  heard. 

Ger.  audiendus,  to  be  heard,  cfe- 
servi7ig  to  be  heard. 


»  See  206,  foot-notes. 


»  See  J}  06,  foot-notes. 


m 


102 


VERBS. 


%  ' 


VERBS. 


103 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
213.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT     SVSTEM.» 

Indicative  Mood. 


aj 

Present. 

am 

y 
-O 

-as. 

-at; 

-amus, 

-atis. 

-ant. 

nion 

-eo, 

-es. 

-et; 

-emus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

reg 

-O 

-is. 

-it; 

-imus. 

-itis. 

-unt. 

aud 

-lO, 

-IS, 

-it; 

-imus. 

-Itis, 

-iunt. 

Imperfect. 

am 

-iibam, 

-abas, 

-abat ; 

-abamus. 

-abatis. 

-abant. 

mon 

-ebam, 

-ebas. 

-ebat ; 

-ebamus, 

-ebatis, 

-ebant. 

reg 

-ebam, 

-ebas. 

-ebat ; 

-ebamus, 

-ebatis, 

-ebant. 

aud 

-iebam, 

-iobas, 

-iebat ; 

Future 

-iebamus, 

> 

-iebatis 

,      -iebant 

am 

-abo, 

-abis. 

-abit ; 

-abimus. 

-abitis, 

-abunt. 

mon 

-ebo, 

-ebis. 

-ebit ; 

-ebimus. 

-ebitis, 

-ebunt. 

reg 

-am, 

-es. 

-et; 

-emus. 

-etis. 

-ent. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ies, 

-iet ; 

-iemus, 

-ietis. 

-ient. 

Subjunctive. 

Present 

• 

am 

-em, 

-5s, 

-et; 

-Smus, 

-etis, 

-ent. 

mon 

-earn, 

-eas, 

-eat; 

-eamus. 

-eatis. 

-eant. 

reg 

-am, 

-as, 

-at; 

-amus. 

-atis. 

-ant. 

aud 

-iam, 

-ias, 

-iat; 

-iamus, 

-iatis. 

-iant. 

• 

Imperfect. 

am 

-arem, 

-ares. 

-aret ; 

-aremus. 

-aretis, 

-arent. 

mon 

-erem. 

-eres, 

-eret ; 

-eremus. 

-eretis. 

-erent. 

reg 

-erem. 

-eres. 

-eret ; 

-eremus, 

-eretis, 

-erent. 

aud 

-irem, 

-Ires, 

-iret ; 

-Iremus, 

-iretis, 

-Trent. 

Present. 

Imperative.           ^ 

Future. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

am 

-a, 

-ate; 

-ato. 

-ato; 

-atote. 

-anto. 

mon 

-e, 

-ete; 

-eto. 

-eto; 

-etote, 

-ento. 

reg 

-e, 

-ite; 

-ito, 

-ito; 

-itote, 

-unto. 

aud 

-I, 

-ite; 

-ito, 

-ito; 

-itote, 

-iunto. 

Pres.  Infinitive. 

Pres. 

Participle 

• 

Gerund. 

am 

-are ; 

-ans; 

-andl. 

mon 

-ere; 

-ens; 

-endi. 

reg 

-ere; 

-ens; 

-end!. 

aud 

-Ire; 

-lens ; 

-iendi. 

Note 

.—Verbs 

in  id  of  Conj. 

III.  have  certain 

endings  of  Conj. 

IV.;  see 

217. 

1  For  the  Present  System,  see  22/3, 1. 


HI 


)i 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 
214.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

PRESENT     SYSTEM. 


am 
mon 
reg 
aud 


am 
mon 
reg 
aud 


am 
mon 
reg 
aud 


-or, 
-eor 
-or, 
-ior. 


-aris 
-eris 
-eris 
-Iris 


or  are, 
or  ere, 
or  ere, 
or  Ire, 


1 


-amur, 
-emur, 
-imur, 
-Imur, 


am 
mon 

reg 


aud     -iar 


Indicative  Mood. 

Present. 

-atur ; 
-etur ; 
-itur ; 
-itur ; 

Imperfect. 
abar,     -abaris  or  abarc,    -abatur  ; 
ebar,     -ebaris  or  ebare,    -ebatur ; 
ebar,    -ebaris  or  ebare,    -ebatur  ; 
iebar,   -iebaris  or  iebare,  -iebatur; 

Future. 
-aberis  or  abere,    -abitur ; 
-eberis  or  ebere,    -cbitur ; 
-eris       or  ere,         -etur ; 
-ieris      or  iere,       -ietur ; 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 

or  ere, 
or  eare, 
or  are, 
or  iare, 


-amini, 
-emini, 
-imini, 
-IminI, 


-antur. 
-entur. 
-untur. 
-iuntur. 


-abamur,  -abaminl,   -abantur. 

-ebamur,  -ebamim,   -ebantur. 

-ebamur,  -ebaminl,   -ebantur. 

-iebamur,  -iebamim,  -iebantur. 


-abor, 
-ebor, 
-ar, 
-iar. 


-abimur, 
-ebimur, 
-emur, 
-iemur, 


-abimini,    -abuntur. 
-ebimini,    -ebuntur. 


-eminl, 
-iemini, 


-entur. 
-ientur. 


-er, 

-ear 

-ar. 


-ens 
-earis 
-ads 
-iaris 


-etur ; 
-eatur ; 
-atur ; 
-iatur ; 


-emur, 
-eamur, 
-amur, 
-iamur, 


am 

mon 

reg 


-arer, 
-erer, 
-erer. 


-areris  or  arere, 
-ereris  or  erere, 
-ereris   or  erere, 


aud     -irer,      -Ireris    or  Ire  re, 
Present. 

SmOULAR.  PLURAL. 


Imperfect. 
-aretur ;      -aremur, 
-eretur ;      -eremur, 
-eretur ;      -eremur, 
-iretur ;       -iremur. 


-emini, 
-eamini, 
-aminI, 
-iaminl. 


-aremmi, 
-er  emini, 
-ere  mini, 
-Iremini, 


-entur. 
-eantur 
-antur. 
-iantur. 

-arentur. 
-erentur. 
-erentur. 
-irentur. 


Imperative.         p^^^^^^,^ 


SINGULAR. 


am 
mon 
reg 
aud 


-are, 
-ere, 
-ere, 
-Ire. 


-aminl ; 
-eminl ; 
-iminI ; 
-iminl ; 


-ator, 
-etor, 
-itor, 
-itor, 


-ator ; 
-etor ; 
-itor ; 
-Itor ; 


PLURAL. 

-antor. 

-  -entor. 

-  -untor. 

-  -iuntor. 


Pres.  Infinitive. 

-arl; 
-eri; 
-1 
aud 


am 

mon 

reg 


-Iri 


Gerundfv^e. 

-andus. 
-endus. 
-endus. 
-iendus. 


1  In  these  and  the  followin-  endings  re  takes  the  place  oiris:  aris  or  are,  dbdris  or 
dbare.  Be  Is  formed  from  ris  by  dropping  final  s  and  then  changing  final  *  to  e;  see 
36,  5;  24, 1,  note ;  also  237. 


104  VERBS. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 


215.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 


perfect   system. 1 

Indicative  Mood. 
Perfect. 


-istT,         -it ; 


-imus 


) 


-istis,         -erunt,  ere.' 


amSv 
monu 
rex 
audiv 


Pluperfect. 


>  -eram. 


-eras,        -erat ; 


-cramus,        -eratis,       -erant. 


mav  *^ 

[lonu    I        « 
>  -ero, 


amav 
monu 
rex 
audiv 


Future  Perfect. 


-ens,        -erit ; 


-erimus,        -cntis,       -erint. 


amav 
monu 
rex 
audiv 


amav 
monu 
rex 
audiv 


amav 
monu 
rex 
audiv 


1 . 

>  -erim. 


SUBJUNCTIYE. 
Perfect. 


-ens. 


-erit ; 


•erimus,        -entis,       -erint 


Pluperfect. 


-issem, 


-isses,      "isset;  -issemus,      -issetis,      -issent. 


Perfect  Infinitive. 


■isse. 


SUPINE     SYSTEM.! 

FuT.  Infinitive.       Fut.  Participle. 


am^t 
monit 
rect 
audit 


-urus  esse. 


-urus. 


Supine. 


-um,  -a. 


1  For  the  Perfect  System,  see  333,. II.;  for  the  Supine  System,  333,  III. 

2  From  the  comparative  view  presented  in  313-316,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  four 
conjugations  differ  from  each  other  only  in  the  formation  of  the  Principal  Parts  and  in 
the  endings  of  the  Present  System.    See  also  301,  foot-note. 


|i 


VERBS. 


COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 


105 


216.  PASSIVE  VOICE. 


amat   1 
monit 
rect 
audit 


SUPINE     S^'^STEM. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Perfect. 


-us  sum,      -us  es, 


us  est ;         -1  *  sumus,     -I  estis,     -i  sunt. 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit  , 


Pluperfect. 
-us  eram,     -us  eras,      -us  erat ;       -I  eramus,     -I  eratis,   -I  erant. 

Future  Perfect. 
-  -us  ero,        -us  eris,       -us  erit ;        -i  erimus,      -i  eritis,     -i  erunt. 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit 


amS,t 
monit 
rect 
audit 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit 


Subjunctive. 

Perfect. 
-  -us  sim,       -us  sTs,       -us  sit ;         -I  simus,        -i  sitis,       -i  sint. 


Pluperfect. 
-us  essem,  -us  esses,  -us  esset ;    -I  essemus,    -i  essetis,  -i  essent. 


Infinitive. 


Perfect. 
-us  esse. 


Future. 
-um  irl. 


Perfect  Participle. 


amat 
monit 
rect 
audit  . 


-us. 


>  In  the  plural,  -us  becomes  -l :  amdt-i  sumu9,  etc. 


i»«;«rf>'is^  '   V  ..'«•I»  ,.  . 


sifV^i.fifliaij::-: 


106 


THIRD   CONJUGATION'. 


217.  A  few  verbs  of  the  Third  Conjugation  form  the  Present 
Indicative  in  io,  ior,  like  verbs  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation.  They 
are  inflected  with  the  endings  of  the  Fourth  wherever  those  end- 
ings have  two  successive  vowels.     These  verbs  are — 

1.  Capio^  to  take ;  cupid,  to  desire ;  /acid,  to  make  ;  fodio,  to  dig ;  fttgi6^ 
to  fiQQ\jaci5^  to  throw ;  J3ar^5,  to  bear;  quatio^  to  shake;  rapio^  to  seize; 
sapiS,  to  be  wise,  with  their  compounds. 

2.  The  compounds  of  the  obsolete  verbs,  laciS^  to  entice,  and  specid,^  to 
look;  allicio^  elicio^  illicio^ pellicio^  etc. ;  aspiciS,  conspicio,  etc. 

3.  The  Deponent  Verbs :  gradior,  to  go ;  morior^  to  die ;  patior,  to  suffer ; 
see  331. 

218.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Capio,  /  ^aX-^. 

Verb  Stem,  cap;  Present  Stem,  cape,^ 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pees.  Ind.  Pres.  Inf.  Phrf.  Ind.  Supine. 

capio,  capere,  cepT,  captum. 

Indicative  Mood. 

SINGULAR.  ^^^^^^^^  Tense. 


capio,  capis,  capit ; 


PLURAL. 

I        capimus,  capitis,  capiunt. 

Imperfect. 
capiobam,  -icbas,  -iebat ;  |        capiebamus,  -iebatis,  -iebant. 

Future. 
capiam,  -ies,  -iet ;  |        capicmus,  -ietis,  -ient. 

Perfect. 
ccpl,  -IstI,  -it ;  I        cepimus,  -Istis,  -erunt,  or  ere. 

Pluperfect. 
ceperam,  -eras,  -erat ;  |        ceperamus,  -eratis,  -erant. 

Future  Perfect. 
cepero,  -oris,  -erit ;  (        ceperimus,  -eritis,  -erint. 

Subjunctive. 

Present. 
capiam,  -ias,  -iat ;  |        capiamus,  -iatis,  -iant. 

Imperfect. 
caperem,  -ores,  -eret ;  |       caperemus,  -eretis,  -erent. 

Perfect. 
ceperim,  -eris,  -erit ;  |        ceperimus,  -critis,  -erint. 

Pluperfect. 
cepissem,  -isses,  -isset ;  |        cepissemus,  -issetis,  -issent. 


*  Specib  occurs,  but  is  exceedingly  rare. 
'  Witli  vftriablo  vowel— <>,  i :  cape^  capi. 


SINGULAR. 

Prc8,  cape; 

Fut.    capito, 
capito ; 

Infinitive. 

Prcs.  capere. 
Perf,  cepisse. 
Fut    capturus  esse. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  capiendl, 

Dat.  capiendo. 

Ace,  capiendum, 

AhL  capiendo. 


VERBS  IN  10. 

Imperative. 
I 


PLURAL. 

capita. 

capitote, 
capiunto. 

Participle. 

Pres,  capiens. 
Fut,    capturus. 

•  Supine 


Ace,    captum, 
Abl,    captu. 


219.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Capior, /am  jfaXrew. 


Pbe8.  Ind. 
capior, 


107 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Pees.  Inf.  Perf.  Ind 

capl,  captus  sum. 

Indicative  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
singular.  plural. 

capior,  caperis,  capitur;  |    capimur,  capimini,  capiuntur. 

Imperfect. 
capiebar,  -iebaris,  -iebatur ;  |    capiebamur,  -iebamini,  -iebantur. 

Future. 
capiar,  -ieris,  -ietur ;  |    capiemur,  -icmini,  -ientur. 

Perfect. 
captus  sum,  cs,  est ;  |    capti  sumus,  cstis,  sunt. 

Pluperfect. 
captus  eram,  eras,  erat ;  |    captI  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

Future  Perfect. 
captus  ero,  eris,  erit ;  |    captI  erimus,  eritis,  erunt. 


108- 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONS, 


VERBAL  INFLECTIONS, 


SINGULAR. 

capiar,  -iaris,  -iatur; 


Subjunctive. 

Present. 


PLURAL. 

I    capiamur,  -i^minl^  -iantur. 

Imperfect. 
caperer,  -ereris,  -eretur ;  |    caperemur,  -eremini,  -erentur. 

Perfect. 
captus  sim,  sis,  sit ;  |    capti  sTmus,  sTtis,  sint. 

Pluperfect. 
captus  essem,  esses,  esset ;  |    captI  essemus,  essetis,  essent. 

Imperative. 

Pres,  capere;  |  capimini. 

Fut,    capitor,  I 

capitor;  |  capiuntor. 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  capl. 

Perf,  captus  esse. 


Fut.    captum  In. 


Participle. 


Perf,  captus*-^ 
Fut.    capiehdus. 


VERBAL   INFLECTIONS. 

220.  The  Principal  Parts  are  fonned  in  the  four  conjuga- 
tions with  the  following  endings,  including  the  characteristic  vow- 
els, a,  e,  e,  i  : 

CONJ.  I. 


», 


amo. 


are,       avi,        atum, 

amare,  amavl,     amatum,  to  love. 


Con  J.  II.   In  a  few  verbs : 
hi  most  verbs : 


e8,  ere,  evi,  etum, 

deleO,  delere,  delevi,  deletum,  to  destroy, 

e5,  ere,  uX,  itum, 

moneo,  monere,  monul,  monitum,  to  advise, 

CoNJ.  III.  In  consonant  stems :        6,  ere,  si,  turn, 

carpo,  carpere,  carpsi,  carptum,  to  pluck. 

In  voivel  stems:             6,  ere,  i, 

acuo,  acuere,  acui, 


turn, 

acutiwn,  to  sharpen. 


CoNJ.    IV. 


id.         Ire,       IvS,        itum, 

audio,    audlrc,  audivi,    auditum,  to  Jiear, 


221.  Compounds  of  verbs  with  dissyllabic  Supines  generally 
change  the  stem-vowel  in  forming  the  principal  parts : 

I.  Wh€7i  the  Present  of  ike  compound  has  i  for  e  of  tJie  simple  verb : 


109 


1.  The  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  resume  the  e  : 

.  rego,  regere,  rexi,  rectum, 

dl-rigo,  dirigere,  direxl,  directum, 

2.  But  sometimes  only  the  Supine  resumes  the  e :  * 

teneo,  tengre,  tenui, 

de-tineo,  detinere,  detinui, 

II.   Wlien  tlie  Present  of  the  compound  has  i  for  a  of  the  simple  verb  : 
1.  The  Perfect  generally  resumes  the  vowel  of  the  simple  perfect,  and 
the  Supine  takes  e,*  sometimes  a : 


tentum, 
detentum, 


to  rule, 
to  direct. 


to  hold, 
to  detain. 


capio,' 


capere,  • 


cepi, '  captum, ""  to  take, 

ac-cipio,  accipere,  accepi,  acceptum,  to  accept, 

2.  But  sometimes  the  Perfect  retains  i  and  the  Supine  takes  e : ' 

rapio,  rapere,  rapui,  raptum,  to  seize, 

di-ripio,  diripere,  diripui,  direptum,  to  tear  asunder. 

Note.— For  Reduplication  in  compounds,  see  255,  I.,  4;  other  peculiarities  of 
compounds  will  be  noticed  under  the  separate  conjugations. 

222.  All  the  forms  of  any  regular  verb  arrange  themselves  in 
three  distinct  groups  or  systems  : 

I.  The  Present  System,  with  the  Present  Infinitive  as  its  basis, 
comprises — 

1.  The  Present,  Imperfect,  and  Future  Indicative— Aci'ive  and  Passive. 

2.  The  Prese7it  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive — Active  and  Passive. 

3.  The  Imperative — Active  and  Passive. 

4.  The  Present  Infinitive — Active  and  Passive. 

5.  The  Present  Active  Participle, 

6.  The  Gerund  and  the  Gerundive. 

Note.— These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Present  Stem,  found  in  the 
Present  Infinitive  Active  by  dropping  the  ending  re :  amare,  present  stem 
AMI ;  monere,  mone  ;  regere,  rege  ;  audire,  audi. 

II.  The  Perfect  System,  with  the  Perfect  Indicative  Active  as 
its  basis,  comprises  in  the  Active  Voice — 

1.  The  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

2.  The  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive, 

3.  The  Perfect  Infinitive. 

Note.— These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Perfect  Stem,  found  in  the 
Perfect  Indicative  Active,  by  dropping  i :  amdvi,  perfect  stem  amav  ; 
monul,  MONn. 

III.  The  Supine  System,  with  the  Supine  as  its  basis,  comprises — 

*  The  favorite  vowel  before  x,  or  two  or  more  consonants ;  see  ^4,  1. 


i«l 


110 


SYNOPSIS  OF  COmUGATIOK 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION, 


111 


1.  The  Supines  in  um  and  u,  the  former  of  which  with  irl  forma  the 
Future  Infinitive  Passive, 

2.  The  Future  Active  and  Perfect  Passive  Participles^  the  former  of 
which  with  esse  forms  the  Future  Active  Infinitive^  and  the  latter  of  which 
with  the  proper  parts  of  the  auxiliary  sum  forms  in  the  Passive  those 
tenses  which  in  the  Active  belong  to  the  Perfect  System, 

Note. — These  parts  are  all  formed  from  the  Supine  Stem^  found  in  the 
Supine  by  dropping  um :  amatum^  supine  stem  amat  ;  monitum^  monit. 

SYNOPSIS   OF  CONJUGATION 
FIRST  CONJUGATION. 
223.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Amo,  I  love. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 


amo, 


amare, 


amavi. 


amatum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  ama. 


indicative. 

Pres,  amo 
Imp.   amabam 
Fut.    amubo 


BUBJUNCTIVE. 

amem 
amurem 


IMPEE. 

ama 


amSto 


INnNITIVE. 

amare 


Gerund^  amandl,  do,  etc. 
3.  Perfect  System  ;  Stem,  amav. 


Perf  amavT 
Plup.  amaverara 
F,  P,  amavero 


amavenm 
amavissem 


amavisse 


Fut. 


4.  Supine  System  ;  Stem,  amdi, 

I  I  I    amaturus  esse 

Supine^  amatum,  amatu. 


224.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Amor,  lam  loved. 


1,  Principal  Parts. 


amor. 


amari, 


amatus  sum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  ama. 


Pres.  amor 
Imp.   amabar 
Fut,    amabor 


amer 
amarer 


amare 


amari 


amator 
Gerundive,  amandus. 


PARTICIPLE. 

amans 


amaturus 


INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  amatus  sum 
Plup,  amatus  eram 
F.  P.  amatus  ero 
Fut, 


3.  Supine  System  ;  Stem,  amcit. 

IMFER. 


6UBJUNCTIVE. 

amatus  sim 
amatus  essem 


INFINITIVE. 

amatus  esse 


amatum  iii 


PARTICIPLE. 

amatus 


SECOND  CONJUGATION. 


225.  ACTIVE  VOICE.—Moneo, /ac/Wse. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 


moneo, 

monere, 

inonui 

,            monitmn. 

2.  Present  System;  Stem,  mone. 

Prcs.  moneo 
Imp.  monebam 
Fut,    monebo 

moneam 
monorem 

mone 
moneto 

monere 

monens 

Gerund,  monendl,  do,  etc. 
3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  monu. 


Peif.  monui 
Plup.  monueram 
F.  P,  monuero 


monuerim 
monuissem 


monuisse 


Fut, 


4.  Supine  System;  Stem,  monit. 

I  I  I  moniturus  esse  |  moniturus 

Supine,  monitum,  monitu. 


226.  PASSIVE  NOlCE.—^oMQov,  I  am  advised. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 


moncor. 


Pres.  moneor 
Imp.  moncbar 
Fut.    monebor 


moneri 


7 


monitus  sum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  mone. 


monear 
monerer 


monere 


moneri 


monetor 
Gctmndive^  monendus. 

3.  Supine  System;  Stem,  monit. 


Peif.  monitus  sum 
Plup.  monitus  eram 
F.  P,  monitus  ero 
Fut, 


monitus  sim 
monitus  essem 


monitus  esse 


monitum  iri 


monitus 


\ 


112 


SYNOPSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION. 
227.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Reg6,  I  rule. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 
regS,  regere,  rexi,  rectum. 

2.  Present  System;  Stem,  rcgc. 


Perf.  rexl 
Plup.  rexeram 
jP.  P,  rexero 


INDICATIVE. 

BUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPERATIVE. 

INFINITIVE. 

Pres.  rego 

regam 

rege 

regere 

Imp,   regebam 

regerem 

FuL    regam 

regito 

Gei-und^  regcndi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  rex. 

rexerim  rexisse 

rexissem 


PARTICIPLE. 

regens 


Fut, 


4.  Supine  System;  Stem,  red. 

I  I  I  recturus  esse  |    recturus 

Supine^  rectum,  rectu. 


228.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Regor,  /  am  ruled. 


1.  Principal  Parts. 


regor, 


regi, 


rectus  sum. 


Pres.  regor 
Imp.   regebar 
FuL    regar 


Perf.  rectus  sum 
Plup.  rectus  eram 
F.  P.  rectus  ero 
Fut. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  rege. 


regar 


regerer 


regere  regi 

regitor 
Ge7*u7idivej  regendus. 

S.  Supine  System;  Stem,  7'ect, 

rectus  sim  rectus  esse 

rectus  essem 

rectum  irl 


rectus 


SYNOPJSIS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


113 


FOURTH  CONJUGATION. 
229.  ACTIVE  VOICE.— Audio,  /  hear. 


audi5, 


1.  Principal  Parts. 
audire,  .  audivi, 


auditum. 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  audi. 

INFINITIVE. 

audIre 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPER. 

Pres. 

audio 

audiam 

audi 

Imp. 

audiebam 

audirem 

Fut. 

audiam 

audito 

Pa]f.  audivi 
Plup.  audlveram 
F.  P.  audlvero 


Fut. 


PARTICIPLE. 

audiens 


Gerund^  audiendi,  do,  etc. 

3.  Perfect  System;  Stem,  audlv. 

audlverim  audlvisse 

audlvissem 


4.  Supine  System;  Stem,  audit. 

I  I  I  auditurus  esse  |  audlturus 

Supine^  auditum,  audita. 


230.  PASSIVE  VOICE.— Audior,  /  am  heard. 


audior, 


1.  Principal  Parts 

audiri,  audltus  sum. 


Pres,  audior 
Imp,   audiebar 
Fut.    audiar 


2.  Present  System;  Stem,  audi. 

audiar  audire  audlrl 

audirer 

auditor 

Ge7*undive,  audiendus. 
3.  Supine  System  ;  Stem,  audit. 


Perf.  audltus  sum 
Plup.  audltus  eram 
F.  P.  audltus  ero 
Fut. 


audltus  sim 
audltus  essem 


audltus  esse 


auditum  irl 


audltus 


liiMii 


114 


DEPONENT  VERBS, 


DEPONENT    VERBS. 

23 1 .  Deponent  Verbs  have  in  general  the  forms  of  the  Passive 
Voice  with  the  signification  of  the  Active.     But — 

1.  They  have  also  in  the  Active,  the  future  infinitive,  the  participles, 
gerund,  and  supine. 

2.  The  gerundive  generally  has  the  passive  signification ;  sometimes 
also  the  perfect  participle :  kortandicsy  to  be  exhorted ;  cxpcriuSy  tried. 

3.  The  Future  Infinitive  of  the  Passive  form  is  rare,  as  the  Active  form 
is  generally  used. 

Note.— The  synopsis  of  a  single  example  will  sufficiently  illustrate  the  peculiarities 
of  Deponent  Verbs. 

232.  Hortor,  I  exhort 

1.  Principal  Parts. 
hortor,  hortari,  hortatus  sum. 

2.  Present  System  ;  Stem,  ho7'ta. 


INDICATIVE. 

SUBJUNCTn'E. 

IMPER. 

INFINITIVE. 

PARTICIPLE. 

Fres,  hortor  ^ 

horter 

hortare 

hortari 

hortans 

Imp,  hortabar 

hortarer 

Fut.    hortabor 

hortator 

Gerund,  hortandi. 

Gci^ndivc,  hortandus. 

3.  Supine  Systi 

:m;  Stem,  lioriat. 

Pcrf,  hortatus  sum 

hortatus  sim 

hortatus  esse 

hortatus 

Plup,  hortatus  eram 

hortatus  essem 

F.  P.  hortatus  ero  . 

Fut, 

hortaturus  esse 

hortaturus 

f 

Supine,  hortJ 

Itum,  hort 

atu. 

Note.— For  the  Principal  Parts  of  Deponent  Verbs  in  the  other  conjugations,  see 
J?68,  2^j3,  and  288.  From  these  Principal  Parts  the  pupil,  by  the  aid  of  the  paradigms 
already  learned,  will  be  able  to  inflect  any  Dei)onent  Verb. 

PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATION. 

233.  The  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugatiok,  formed 
by  combining  the  Future  Active  Participle  with  sxim^  de- 
notes an  intended  or  future  action: 

*  The  tenses  are  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers  :  hortor^  hor- 
tdris^  hortutur^  7iortdmui\  Jiortdminl^  liortantur.  All  the  forms  in  this  synopsis  have 
the  active  meaning,  I  exhort^  I  was  exhorting,  etc.,  except  the  Gerundive^  which  has 
the  passive  force,  deserving  to  he  exhorted,  to  he  exhorted.  The  Gerundive,  as  it  is 
passive  in  meaning,  cannot  be  used  in  intransitive  Deponent  Verbs,  except  in  an  imper- 
Bonal  sense;  see  301, 1. 


ly 


3  fL^^'^J^'^      l^    t^a.»-t^.., 

PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION,    / 

Amaturus  sum,  /  am  adout  io  love. 


115 


INDICATIVE. 

Prcs.  amaturus  sum  * 
Imp,   amaturus  eram 
Fut,    amaturus  ero 
Pcrf,  amaturus  fui 
Plup.  amaturus  fueram 
F,  P,  amaturus  f uero  ^ 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

amaturus  sim 
amaturus  essem 

amatiirus  fuerim 
amaturus  fuissem 


INFINITIVE. 

amaturus  esse 


amaturus  fuisse 


234.  The  Passive  Periphrastic  Conjugatio:n",  formed 

by  combining  the  Gerundive  with  siimy  denotes  necessity  or 

duty. 

Amandus  sum,  I  must  he  loved,^ 


Pres,  amandus  sum 
Imp,    amandus  eram 
Fut,    amandus  ero 
Peif.  amandus  fuI 
Plup.  amandus  fueram 
F.  P.  amandus  fuero 


amandus  sim 
amandus  essem 

amandus  fuerim 
amandus  fuissem 


amandus  esse 


amandus  fuisse 


Note.— The  Periphrastic  Conjugation,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  term,  includes  all 
forms  compounded  of  participles  with  mini;  but  as  the  Pres.  Part,  with  suin  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  Pres.  Ind.  {amdns  est  =  amat\  and  is  accordingly  seldom  used,  and  as  the 
Perf.  Part,  with  sum  is,  in  the  strictest  sense,  an  integral  part  of  the  regular  conjugation, 
the  term  Periphrastic  is  generally  limited  to  the  two  conjugations  above  given. 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION. 

235.  Perfects  in  avi,  evi,  ivi,  and  the  tenses  derived 
from  them,  sometimes  drop  v  and  suffer  contraction  before 
s  and  Y,  and  sometimes  before  t.     Thus — 

A  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  a:  amdvisti  (amalsti),  amdsil; 
amavcram  (amaeram),  amdrarr^\;  amdvisse  (amaisse),  amdsse;  amdvit  (ama- 
it),  amdt.  ^  \ijs^  0 

£  with  the  following  vowel  becomes  e :  nevi  (to  spin),  nevistl  (nelsti), 
ricstl ;  neverunt  (neerunt),  nerunt, 

i-i  and  I-i  become  i :  audlvlsti  (audiisti),  audlsti ;  audivisscm  (audiis- 
sem),  audlsscm  ;  audlvit  (audiit),  audit, 

1.  Perfects  in  ivl  sometimes  drop  v  in  any  of  their  fomis,  but  generally 
without  contraction,  except  before  s:  audlvl,  audit,  audiit,  audieram  /  audi- 
mstl,  audiisti  or  audistl. 


1  The  periphrastic  forms  arc  inflected  regularly  through  the  persons  and  numbers: 
amaturus  sum,  es,  est.    The  Fut.  Perf.  is  exceedingly  rare. 
*  Or,  /  deserve  (ought)  to  he  loved. 


116 


PECULIARITIES  IN  CONJUGATION, 


2.  Perfects  in  ovl. — The  perfects  of  nosco^  to  know,  and  moved,  to  move, 
sometimes  drop  ^  and  suffer  contraction  before  r  and  s  :  novisti,  nostl, 

3.  Perfects  in  si  and  xi  sometimes  drop  is,  is,  or  sis :  scripslstl,  scrlpstl  / 
dlxisse,  dixe  /  accessistis,  accestis, 

236.  The  ending  ere  for  erunt  in  the  Perfect  is  com- 
mon in  Livy  and  the  poets,  but  rare  in  Cicero  and  Caesar. 

Note.— The  form  in  ere  does  not  drop  v.    In  poetry  erunt  occurs. 

237.  R©  for  ris  in  the  ending  of  the  second  Person  of  the  Passive  is 
rare  in  the  Present  Indicative,  but  common  in  the  other  tenses. 

238.  3Dic,  due,  fab,  and  fer,  for  dice,  dicce,  face,  and  fere,  are  the 
Imperatives  of  dic^,  ducb,  facib,  and  ferb,  to  say,  lead,  make,  and  bear. 

Note  1. — D'lce^  duce,  and  face  occur  in  poetry. 

Note  2.— Compounds  follow  the  simple  verbs,  except  those  of /aci^,  which  change  a 
into  i :  cbvjice. 

239.  Undus  and  undi  for  cndus  and  endi  occur  as  the  endings  of  the 
Gerundive  and  Gerund  of  Conj.  III.  and  lY.,  especially  after  i:  faciundus, 
from  facib,  to  make ;  dlcundus,  from  dlcb,  to  say. 

240.  Ancient  and  Rare  Forms. — Various  other  forms,  belonging  in 
the  main  to  the  earlier  Latin,  occur  in  the  poets,  even  of  the  classical 
period,  and  occasionally  also  in  prose,  to  impart  to  the  style  an  air  of  an- 
tiquity or  solemnity.     Thus  forms  in — 

1 .  Ibam  for  iebam,  in  the  Imperfect  Ind.  of  Conj.  IV. :  sclham  for 
sciebam.     See  Imperfect  of  eb,  to  go,  295. 

2.  ibo,  ibor,  for  iam,  iar,  in  the  Future  of  Conj.  IV. :  servibb  for  5^- 
viam  ;  opperibor  for  opperiar.     See  Future  of  cb,  295. 

3.  im  for  am  or  em,  in  the  Pres.  Subj. :  edim,  edls,  etc.,  for  edam,  cdds, 
etc. ;  duim  (from  dub,  for  do),  for  dem, — In  slm,  vclim^  nolim^  malim  (204 
and  293),  im  is  the  common  ending. 

4.  ass6,  ess6,  and  s6,  in  the  Future  Perfect,  and  assim,  essim,  and 
sim,  in  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  of  Conj.  I.,  II.,  III. :  faxb  (facso)  for 
fecerb  ^  {iTora  facib) ;  faxim  for  fecerim  ^  ;  ausim  for  austts  sim  (for  aicse- 
nm,  from  audcb).  Rare  examples  are :  levdssb  for  levdverb  ;  prohibessb  for 
prohihuerb  ;  jussb  for  jitsserb  ;  capsb  for  cepei^b  ;  axb  for  egerb  ;  occisit  for 
occidcrit ;  taxis  for  tetigeins, 

5.  to  and  inin6  for  tor,  the  former  in  both  numbers,  the  latter  in  the 
singular,  of  the  Future  Imperative,  Passive  and  Deponent :  arhitratb,  arhi- 
trdminb  for  arbitrator  ;  utuntb  for  utuntor, 

6.  ier  for  %  in  the  Present  Passive  Infinitive  :  amdrier  for  amdrl ;  vidS- 
ricr  for  videri. 


>  Remember  that  r  in  ero  and  erim  was  originally  s;  Bce  31, 1 ;  204,  foot-note  2. 


ANALYSIS  OF  VERBAL  ENDINGS. 


117 


ANALYSIS    OF    VERBAL    ENDINGS. 

241.  The  endings  whicn  are  appended  to  the  stems  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  various  parts  of  the  finite  verb  contain  three  distinct 
elements : 

1.  The  Tense-Sign:  ba  in  ama-ha-m.,  rege-ba-s, 

2.  The  Mood- Vowel  :  a  in  mone-d-s,  reg-d-s, 

3.  The  Personal  Ending  :  s  in  mone-d-s,  reg-d-s, 

I.  Tense-Si<3NS. 

242.  The  Present  is  without  any  tense-sign :  amd-s.  So  also 
the  Future  ^  in  Conjugations  III.  and  IV. 

243.  In  the  other  tense-forms  of  all  regular  verbs,  the  tense-sign 
is  found  in  the  auxiliary  with  which  these  forms  are  all  compounded : 

Am,d-bam,^  amdv-cram, ;  amd-bb,  amdv-erb  ;  mone-bam,  monu-eram. 

II.  MoOD-SlGNS. 

244.  The  Indicative  has  no  special  sign  to  mark  the  Mood. 

245.  The  Subjunctive  has  a  long  vowel — a,  e,^  or  i* — ^before 
the  Personal  Endings : 

Mone-d-mits,  mone-d-tis,  am-e-mus,  am-e-iis,  s-i-mus,  s-i-iis. 

Note.— This  vowel  is  shortened  before  final  m  and  f,  and  generally  in  the  Perfect 
before  «,  mtis^  and  tis.  man  earn,  amet.,  sit^fuerh^  amdverimns,  amdveritis, 

^  This  Future  is  in  form  a  Present  Subjunctive,  though  it  has  assumed  in  full  the 
force  of  the  Future  Indicative;  see  foot-note  4  below. 

■-'  Bam  and  eratn  are  both  auxiliary  verbs  in  the  Imperfect,  the  former  from  the  stem 
hhu^  the  old  form  of /w  in  fu-l^  and  the  latter  from  the  stem  es  ;  the  former  added  to  the 
Present  stem  forms  the  Imperfect,  the  latter  added  to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Pluper- 
fect. Bd  and  erb  are  Future  forms,  the  former  from  hhu^  the  latter  from  es;  the  former 
added  to  the  Present  stem  forms  the  Future  in  Conjugations  I.  and  XL,  the  latter  added 
to  the  Perfect  stem  forms  the  Future  Perfect.  In  the  Subjunctive  the  tense-forms,  except 
the  Present,  are  compounded  with  Subjunctive  tense-forms  from  es;  thus,  erem  in  reg- 
erem  is  for  esem^  the  old  form  of  essem;  erim  in  rex-erim  is  for  esi7n  =  sim^  and  issem 
in  rex-issem  is  for  essem  ;  thus  the  Present  and  Imperfect  Subjunctive  of  sum  added  to 
the  Perfect  stem  form  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive. 

3  This  e  comes  from  a-l,  of  which  the  I  alone  is  the  true  Mood-Sign. 
<!  *  The  Latin  Subjunctive  contains  the  forms  of  two  distinct  Moods— the  Subjunctive 
with  the  sign  <7,  and  the  Optative  with  the  sign  f,  sometimes  contained  in  e  for  a-1. 
Thus:  Subjunctive,  mo7ie-a-7wws,  audi-d-tis;  Optative,  5- l-??22*s,  rexer-l-tis,  am-e-mus 
for  ama-l-mus^  reger-e-s  for  regera-l-s.  The  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms,  originally 
distinct,  have  in  the  Latin  been  blended  mto  one  Mood,  called  the  Subjunctive,  and  are 
used  without  any  difference  of  meaning.  Thus  the  Mood  in  mone-d-mus^  a  Subjunctive 
form,  has  precisely  the  same  force  as  in  am-e-mus^  an  Optative  form.  The  First  Person 
Singular  of  Futures  in  am—regam^  audiam,  etc.— is  in  form  a  Subjunctive,  while  the 
other  Persons,  reges^  et,  etc.,  audies,  et^  etc.,  are  in  form  Optatives. 


118 


PEESONAL  ENDINGS, 


246.  The  Imperative  is  distinguished  by  its  Personal  Endings ; 
see  247,  3.  ^ 

III.  Personal  Endings. 

247.  The  Personal  Endings  are  formed  from  ancient  pronom- 
inal stems,  and  have,  accordingly,  the  force  of  pronouns  in  Eng- 
lish.    They  are  as  follows : 


Singular,^ 


PluraV 


Person. 
First 

Second 

TJdrd 

Eirst 

Second 

TIdrd 


amaba-m 

amaba-s 

amaba-t 

amaba-mus 

amaba-tis 

amiU)a-nt 


Active. 
m 

8 
t 

mus 

tis 

nt 

EXAMPLES. 


amaba-r 

amaba-ris 

amaba-tur 

amaba-mur 

amaba-mini 

amaba-ntur 


Passive. 
r 

ris 
tur 
mur 
mini  3 
ntur 


rego 

regi-s 

regi-t 

regi-mus 

regi-tis 

rcgu-nt 


Meaning. 

/ 

ihou^  you 

hc^  shCy  it 

wc 

you 

they 

rego-r 

rege-ris 

regi-tur 

regi-mur 

regi-iiiinl 

regu-ntur 


1.  OMiTTED.—In  the  Present,^  Perfect,  and  Future  Perfect  Ind.  of  all 
the  conjugations,  and  in  the  Future  Ind.  of  Conjugations  I.  and  II.,  the 
ending  m  does  not  appear.  In  these  forms  the  First  Person  ends  in  o:^ 
amh,  amahb^  amavcro  ;  except  in  the  Perfect,  where  it  ends  in  J ; «  amavi. 

2.  The  endings  of  the  Perfect  Active  are  peculiar.  They  are  the  same 
as  in  fui : 


1  In  the  Singular  these  Personal  Endings  contain  cach-(l)  in  the  Active  Voice  one 
pronominal  stem,  m,  I;  «,  thou,  you;  t,  he;  and  (2)  in  the  Passive  two  such  stems,  one 
denotmg  the  Person,  and  the  other  the  Passive  Voice:  thus,  in  the  ending  tur  t  (tu) 
denotes  the  person,  and  r,  the  voice,    i?  of  the  first  person  stands  for  m-r. 

2  In  the  Plural  the  Endings  contain  each-(l)  in  the  Active  two  pronominal  stems  • 
mu-8  =  m  (mu)  and  s.  I  and  you,  Ke.,  we ;  ^/5  =  t  (the  original  form  for  s,  thou,  as  seen 
in  tu,  thou)  and  «,  =  s  and  5,  thou  and  thou,  1.  e.,  you;  nt=n  and  t,  he  and  he,  i.  e.,  they; 
and  (2)  in  the  Passive  throe  such  stems,  the  third  denoting  the  Passive  Voice :  thus  in 
ntur^  7it  (ntu)  denotes  the  person  and  number,  and  r,  the  voice. 

3  Mini  was  not  originally  a  Personal  Ending,  but  the  Plural  of  a  Passive  Participle 
not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  but  seen  in  the  Greek  {^l^voi).  Ainaminl,  originaUy  amami. 
ni  eshs,  means  you  are  loved,  as  amdtl  estis  means  you  have  been  loved. 

*  Except  in  mm,  I  am,  and  inquam,  I  say. 

*  The  origin  of  this  final  6  is  uncertain.  Curtlus  regards  it  as  simply  the  thematic 
vowel,  but  Meyer  recognizes  in  it  a  8vffix  combined  with  the  thematic  vowel-  see  Cur- 
tins,  Verbum,  I.,  pp.  199,  200;  Meyer,  p.  849. 

*  Probably  a  part  of  the  stem ;  but  sec  Curtius,  Verbum,  II.,  p.  173 ;  Papillon,  pp.  194- 
196 ;  also  two  papers  by  the  author,  on  the  Formation  of  the  Tenses  for  Completed  Action 
in  the  Latin  Finite  Verb;  Transactions  of  the  Am.  Phil.  Assoc,  1S74  and  1875 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


119 


First  Pers, 

Second 

Third 


Singular. 
fu-Ii 
fu-is-tl 
fu-i-t 


Plural. 
fu-i-mus 
fu-is-tis 
fu-eru-nt  or  ere 


3.  The  Imperative  Mood  has  the  following  Personal  Endings ; 


ACTIVE. 
Singular.    Plural. 
Pres,  Second  Pers.  — ^  te 

Fut.    Second  to  tote 

Third  to  nto 


PASSIVE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

re  mhil 
tor 

tor  ntor 


248.  Infinitives,  Participles,  Gerunds,  and  Supines  are  formed 
with  the  following  endings : 


Active. 

Passive. 

Infinitive  Present 

re  (ere) 

ri  (eri),  1 

Perfect 

isse 

us  esse 

Future 

urus  esse 

um  Irl 

Participle  PrescjU 

ns 

Future 

urus 

Perfect 

us 

Ge^'undive 

ndus 

Gomnd 

ndl 

Supine 

um,  u 

FORMATION  OF   STEMS. 

249.  The  three  Special  Stems  are  all  formed  from  the  Verb  Stem. 

I.   Present  Stem. 

250.  The  Present  Stem,  found  in  the  Present  Infinitive  Active 
by  dropping  re,  is  generally  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem  in  the  First 
and  in  the  Fourth  Conjugations,  and  sometimes  in  the  Second. 
Thus,  amd,  dele,  and  audi  ^  are  both  Present  Stems  and  Verb  Stems. 

»  M  is  omitted  in  the  first  person,  and  tJ,  an  ancient  form  of  si,  s,  is  used  in  the  sec- 
ond. Otherwise  the  endinj^s  themselves  are  regular,  but  in  the  second  person  tl  and  tis 
are  preceded  by  Is,  and  ertmt  in  fu-erunt  is  for  esutit,  the  full  form  for  siint.  Thus 
fu-erunt  is  a  compound  ot  fu  and  esunt  for  sunt.  Fu-'istis,  in  lilcc  manner,  may  be  a 
compound  of /w  and  istis  for  esiis,  and  fu-lstt,  of  fu  and  iatl  for  estl  for  es. 

2  In  the  Present  the  ending  is  dropped  in  the  Sing.  Act.,  and  the  endings  te  and  re 
are  shortened  from  tis  and  ris  of  the  Indicative  by  dropping  s  and  changing  final  i  into 
e;  see  24, 1,  note.  In  the  Future,  to  of  the  second  |>erson  corresponds  to  tl  of  the  Per- 
fect Ind.;  to  and  7itd  of  the  third  person  to  t  and  ni.  Tor  and  titor  add  r  to  to  aud  ntd. 
Tote  doubles  the  pronominal  stem. 

3  The  final  vowels  are  generally  exi»lained  as  derived  from  aja,  which  became,  in 
Conj.  I.,  ajo,  shortened  to  6  in  am-O,  and  to  d  in  the  other  forms,  as  am-d-mus ;  in 


130 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS. 


25 1 .  The  Present  Stem,  when  not  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem, 
is  formed  from  it  by  one  of  the  following  methods  : 

1.  By  adding  a  short  vowel,  called  the  Thematic  vowel :  * 


cano ; 


Stem^  reg ; 


i( 


Present  Stem^  rege  ; 


cau ; 


(( 


cane ; 


to  rule, 
to  sing. 


2.  By  adding  a  Thematic  voiocl  preceded  by  n,  sc,  or  t : 


sin 6 ;  Stem,  si ;  Present  Stem,  sine  ;  tope^^mit. 

sperno ;  "     sper,  spr6 ;  "  sperne ;  to  spurn. 

temnO ;  *'     tern ;  **  temne ;  to  despise. 

veterasco ;      "     Vetera ;  **  veterasce ;  to  ^row  old. 

to  tncrease, 
to  braid. 


ere SCO ; 


(( 


ere ; 


**     crgsce ; 
*'     plecte ; 


plecto ;  **    plec ; 

3.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  preceded  by  i  or  j  : 

capio  ;         Stem,  cap  ; 
pello  ;  "     pel ; 


curro ; 


(( 


cur; 


Present  Stem^  cap-je,  cape ;  ^     to  taTce. 
''  pei-]e,  pelle  ;  ^    to  drive. 

•'  cur-je,  curre ;  ^    to  run. 


4.  By  adding  a  Thematic  vowel  and  inserting  n — changed  to  m  before 
a  labial,  b  or  p  ;  see  33,  3  : 

franpp  ;        Stem,  frag ; 
fiindo J  "     fud  ; 

rumpo ;  "     rup  ; 

5.  By  adding  a,  e,  or  i : 


Present  Stem,  frange ; 
"  funde ; 

**  rumpe ; 


to  breah 
to  pour. 

toOU7'St. 


juv6  ;^  Stem,  juv  ; 

video;  "     vid ; 

haurio;  "    haur/orhaus; 

6.  By  reduplicating  the  stem  : 
sisto  ;  Stem,  sta  ; 


Present  Stem,  juva ; 
"  vide ; 

"  hauri ; 


to  assist, 
to  see. 
to  draw. 


sero ; 


sa; 


Present  Stem,  sista,^  siste  ;        to  place, 
"  sisa,  sise,  sere  ;  *  to  sow. 


Note. — Sometimes  two  of  these  methods  are  united  in  the  same  stem : 


glgno  ;         Stem,  gen  ; 


nanciscor ; 


u 


nac; 


Present  Stem,  gigene,  gigne  ;  ^  to  beget. 
"  nancisce ; «  to  obtain. 


Conj.  II.,  ejo^  shortened  to  eu  in  del-eo^  and  to  e  in  dtl-e-mns;  and  in  Conj.  IV.,  ijo^ 
shortened  to  id  in  aud-io,  to  iu  in  aud-iu-nt,  and  to  7  in  aud-i-mus;  see  336,  foot-note. 

1  This  Thematic  vowel,  originally  a,  is  generally  weakened  to  e  or  i ;  reg-e-re,  reg-i- 
mus;  but  sometimes  it  appears  to  take  the  form  of  6  or  u :  reg-d,  reg-u-nt.  There  is, 
however,  some  diflferenco  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  origin  of  6  in  such  eases ;  see 
347, 1,  foot-note  5. 

'  With  variable  Thematic  vowel ;  see  foot-note  1,  above.  J^  pronounced  y,  assimi- 
lated to  I  and  r  in  pelle  and  curre,  as  in  the  Greek  /SaAAw,  from  ^dk-ju.  See  Curtius, 
Verbum,  I.,  p.  300. 

3  For  stista  for  stasia.   The  e  in  aiste  takes  the  several  forms  of  the  Thematic  vowel. 

*  S  changed  to  r  between  two  vowels;  see  31,  1.  The  vowel  a  of  the  stem  is 
weakened  to  i  before  s,  but  to  e  before  r;  see  34, 1  and  2. 

6  Reduplication  with  Thematic  vowel. 

•  JV  inserted  and  i-sc-e  added. 


FORMATION  OF  STEMS, 


121 


II.  Perfect  Stems. 
252.  Vowel  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  v: 


am5  (a-6),  amavi ;    Stem,  ama  ;    Perfect  Stem,  amav ; 
deled,  delevi ;        *'      dele ;  "  del6v ; 

audio,         audivi ;       **     audi ;  "  audiv ; 


to  love. 
to  destroy, 
to  hear. 


acuo 


1.  In  verhs  in  u6,  the  Perfect  Stem  is  the  same  as  the  Verb  Stem : 

acul ;       Stem,  acu ;     Perfect  Stem,  acu ;  to  sharpen, 

253.  Many  Liquid  Stems,  and  a  few  others,  form  the  Perfect 
Stem  by  adding  u: 

Perfect  Stem,  alu ;  to  nourish. 


al6,  alul ;  Stem,  al ; 

fremo,  fremui;  *'     frem ; 

teneO,  tenul ;  "      ten ; 

doceo,  docui ;  ''     doc ; 


it 


fremu ; 
tenu ; 
docu ; 


to  rage, 
to  hold, 
to  teach. 


254.  Most  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  by  adding  s : 

re^o,^  rexl;       Stem,  reg*,     Peifect  Stem,  r&x  =  reg8;  to  rule. 

scribo,         scrips!;      ''     scrib ;  "  scrips  =  scrihs ;  to  wrtte. 

carpo,  carpsi;       "      carp;  "  carps;  to  pluck. 

255.  A  few  Consonant  Stems  form  the  Perfect  Stem  without 
any  suffix  whatever.     But  of  these — 

I.  Some  redupHcate  the  stem  :  * 
cano,       cecini ;        Stem,  can ;     Perfect  Stem,  cecin ;  to  sing. 

1.  The  Reduplication  consists  of  the  initial  consonant  (or  consonants) 
of  the  stem  with  the  following  vowel,  or  with  e — generally  with  the  follow- 
ing vowel,  if  that  vowel  is  e,  i,  o,  or  u,  otherwise  with  e;  see  examples  under 
271.  1,  and  272,  1. 

2.  The  Stem- Vowel  a  is  generally  weakened  to  i,  sometimes  to  e :  cadS, 
cecidi  (for  cecadi),  to  fall. 

3.  In  Verbs  beginning  with  Sp  or  St,  the  reduplication  retains  both  con- 
sonants, but  the  stem  drops  the  s :  spondeb,  spopondi  (for  spospondi),  to  prom- 
ise ;  sto,  steti  (for  stesti),  to  stand. 

4.  In  Compounds  the  reduplication  is  generally  dropped,  but  it  is  retained 
in  the  compounds  of  do,  to  give ;  sto,  to  stand ;  discO,  to  learn ;  posed,  to 
demand  ;  and  sometimes  in  the  compounds  of  currS,  to  run  ;  responded,  re- 
spondi,  to  answer;  circum-dS,  circum-dedl ;  circum-stS,  circum-steti,  to  en- 
circle. The  compounds  of  do  which  are  of  the  third  conjugation  change  e 
of  the  reduplication  into  i  :  ad-db,  ad-didi  (for  ad-dedl),  to  add ;  see  359,  1. 

II.  Some  lengthen  the  Stem-Vowel :  * 

em6,         6ml ;  Stem,  em ;  Perfect  Stem,    em ;  to  buy. 

ag^  -       ^?^ '  "     ag ;  **  eg ;  to  drive. 

ab-igo,     ab-egl ;  "     abig ;  "  abeg ;       to  drive  away. 

Note. — The  stem-vowels  a  and  (in  compounds)  i  generally  become  ^,  as  in  ag6  and 
db-igO. 


1  See  lists,  271,  1,  and  JJ73,  1. 
6 


a  See  lists,  371,2^  272,2. 


123 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS, 


III.  Some  retain  the  stem  unchanged  : ' 


Ic6, 
vis5. 


Id; 
visi; 


Siem^  Ic ; 
"     vis ; 


Perfect  Stem^  Ic ; 
**  vis ; 


to  strike, 
to  visit. 


Note. — Of  the  few  verbs  belonging  to  this  class,  nearly  all  have  the  stem-syllable  long. 


III.  Supine  Stem. 
256.  The  Supine  Stem  adds  t  to  the  Verb  Stem  : 

Stem^  ama; 

•''     die ; 

**     moni:3 

"     dele ; 

audi ; 

carp ; 

1.  Stems  in  d  and  t,  most  stems  in  I  and  r,  and  a  few  others,  change 
t  into  s : 


ain*>,2 

dico, 

moneo, 

deleA, 

audio, 

carpO, 


amatum ; 
dictum ; 
monitum ; 
deletura ; 
audltum ; 
carptum ; 


(I 


Supine  Stem^  amat; 
diet  j 
monit ; 
delet ; 
audit ; 
carpt ; 


it 

44 
44 
44 


to  love, 
to  say. 
to  advise, 
to  destroy, 
to  hear, 
to  pluck. 


laedo,  laesum ; 

vert6,  versum ; 

verr6,  versum ; 

fall6,  falsum ; 


Stem^  laed ; 

*'  vert ; 

"  verr ; 

"  fall ; 


Supine  Stem^  laes;* 
"  vers ;  * 

44 
44 


vers; 
fals ; 


to  hurt, 
to  turn, 
to  brush, 
to  deceive. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS.* 
FIRST   CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a  :  Perfect  in  vi  or  ui. 


257.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  avi,  atum.s 

These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation, 
ing  are  examples : 


d5n6 

honoro 

libero 

nomino 

pugno 

sp6r5 


donare 

honOrare 

llberare 

nOminSre 

pugnare 

sperare 


donavi 

honoravl 

llberavl 

nOminavI 

pugnavi 

speravl 


donatum, 

honoratum, 

liberatum, 

nominatum, 

pugnatum, 

speratum. 


The  follow- 

to  hesfow, 
to  honor, 
to  free. 
to  name, 
to  fight, 
to  Ivope, 


Note  l.—Poto,  are,  am,  atum,  to  drink,  has  also  a  supine,  potum, 
NoTK  2.—Cenutu8^  from  ceiio,  '  to  dine,'  nn^jurdtuH,  from  juro^  '  to  swear,'  are  active 
in  meaning,  having  dined^  etc.    PotuH,  from  poto^  is  also  sometimes  active  in  meaning. 

»  See  list,  272,  3.  ^  For  amaO.  «  See  207. 

4  Laes  is  for  laedt^  plans  for plaudt,  vis  for  vidt^  vers  for  rertt.fals  for  fallt,  vers 
for  verrt;  see  35,  3,  2),  note. 

*  The  Perfect  Formation  is  selected  as  the  special  basis  of  this  classification,  because 
the  irregularities  of  the  other  principal  parts  are  less  important  and  can  be  readily  as- 
sociated with  this  formation.  In  this  classification  the  regular  or  usual  formation  is  first 
given  with  a  few  examples,  then  complete  lists  (1)  of  all  the  simple  verbs  which  deviate 
from  this  formation,  and  (2)  of  such  compounds  as  deviate  in  any  important  particular 
from  their  simple  verbs. 

•  It  is  deemed  unnecessary  longer  to  retain  the  double  mark  ^  over  final  o  in  verbs. 
The  pupil  has  now  learned  that  this  vowel  may  be  short,  though  it  is  generally  long  in 
the  Augustan  poets. 


MM 


FIRST  CONJUGATION, 
258.  Principal  Parts  in — o,  are,  ui,  itum.* 


133 


crepO 
cub6 
domo 
eneco 

frico 

mico 

plico 

seco 
sono 
tono 
veto 


crepare 

crepui 

cubare 

cubui 

domare 

domui 

enecare 

enecui 

fricare 

fricui 

micare 

micui 

plicare 

j  phcavi 
(  plicul 

secare 

secul 

sonare 

sonui 

tonare 

tonui 

vetare 

vetui 

crepitum,2 
cubitum,^ 
domitum, 
enectum,'* 
j  frictum,    ) 
/  fricatum,  ) 

5 

plicatum,  ) 
plicitum,^  ) 
sectum,'' 
sonitum,'' 


vetitum, 


to  creak, 
to  recline, 
to  tarne, 
to  kill. 

to  rub, 

to  glitter, 

to  fold, 

to  cut. 
to  sound. 
to  thunder, 
to  forbid. 


Class  II. — Perfect  ix  i. 

259.  Principal  Parts  in — 0,  are,  i,  turn. 


1.  With  Reduplication.^ 


do 

st5 


dare 
stare 


dedi 
stetl 


datum, 
statum. 


2.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Vowel.^ 


to  give, 
to  stand. 


juvo  juvare  juvl  jutum,^  to  assist, 

(  lavatum,^ ) 

lavo  lavare  lav!  4  lautum,     V  to  wash, 

( lotum,       ) 

Note  1.— In  do  the  characteristic  a  is  short  by  exception :  lo  dabam,  dabo,  darem, 
etc.  Four  compounds  of  do—circumdO,  pessumdn,  satisdo,  and  vinurndd—are  conju- 
gated like  the  simple  verb:  the  rest  are  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (271).  The  basis  of 
several  of  these  compounds  is  do,  'to  place,'  originally  distinct  from  do,  'to  give.' 

Note  2.— Compounds  of  sto  generally  want  the  Supine.  In  the  Perfect  they  have 
stetl,  if  the  first  part  is  a  dissyllable,  otherwise  stiti :  adsio,  adstare,  adstitl.  Dlsto  and 
€Q!8to  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 


*  Note  deviations  in  the  Supine. 

2  In^epo,  are,  ui  {avl\  itum  (dtum) ;  discrepo,  are,  m  (dvl), .    - 

3  Compounds  which  insert  m,  as  accumbo,  etc.,  are  of  Conj.  III.;  see  373. 

*  The  simple  neco  is  regular,  and  even  in  the  compound  the  forms  in  uvl  and  atum 
occur. 

*  DimicO,  are,  dvl  (ui),  dtum  ;  emicf),  are,  ui,  dtum. 

«  Duplies,  multipUco,  replied,  and  supplied,  are  regular :  dre,  dvl,  dtum. 

"^  Secfi  has  participle  secdturus;  sonO,  sondtHrus ;  juvO,  jv/vdtiirvs,  in  compounds 
also  jvturus.    Resono  has  Perfect  resondvl.    Most  compounds  of  sono  want  the  Supine. 

«  See  255,  I.  and  II. 

»  In  poetry,  lavO  is  sometimes  of  Conj.  III. :  lavO,  lavere,  IdvJ,  etc. 
»0  This  short  vowel  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  do  is  a  root- verb  formed  directly  from 
the  root  da  without  the  suffix  from  which  the  a  is  derived  in  other  verbs  in  this  conju- 
gation; see  250,  foot-note. 


134 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


260.  Deponent  Verbs. 

In  this  conjugation  deponent  verbs  are  entirely  regular. 


cOnor 

hortor 

miror 


conarl 

hortari 

mlrari 


conatus  sum, 
hortatus  sura, 
miratus  sum. 


to  endeavor, 
to  exhort, 
to  admire. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION. 


Class  L— Stem  in  e  :  Perfect  in  vi  or  uL 


261.  Principal  Parts  in— eO,  ere,  evi,  etum. 

These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 

deleo  delere  delevi 

complevi 


corapleo 
/  fleo 


neo 


'to' 

delere 
complere 
flere 
nere 


flevi 
nevi 


deletum, 
completum,* 
fletum,      ^ 
netum,* 


to  destroy, 
to  Jill, 
to  weep, 
to  spin. 


262.  Principal  Parts  in— eO,  ere,  ul,  itum. 
These  endings  belong  to  most  verbs  of  this  conjugation.     The 
following  are  examples  :      _^  _  _ 


/ 


debuT 

habui 

monul 

nocuT 

parul 

placui 

tacui 


\ 


debeo    C^-^^Z^  debere 

habeo  Lc^.^^^    habere 

moneo^^R,  vr-c^ujnonere 
^.     noceo  ^i^afaa.^ocere 
/   pareo  ^>^cv^      parere 
^  ^placed  >€*^Jv<,  placere 
I  Aaceo  Ok.   ix^^^re  ^^ 

Note  1.— Many  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  ui  want  the  Supine.    The  fol- 
lowing are  the  most  important : 


debitum, 

habitum, 

monitum, 

nocitum, 

paritum, 

placitum, 

taciturn, 


7o  owe. 
\to  have, 
do  advise, 
I  to  hurt, 
to  obey. 
f  to  please. 
,  to  be  silent. 


cande5,  to  shine, 
J  e^eO,       to  want. 

emineO,  to  stand  forth. 
/  floreo,     to  bloom. 

frondeO,  to  bear  leaves. 
J  horreo,  to  shudder. 
^  .lateO,      to  be  hid. 


madeO, 
^.  niteO, 

oleO, 

*^  palleo, 

^pateo, 

^  rubeo, 

sileO, 


to  be  wet. 
to  shine, 
to  smell, 
to  be  pale, 
to  be  open, 
to  be  red. 
to  be  silent. 


sorbeO,     to  swallow, 
splendeO,  to  shine, 
>  BtudeO,      to  study. 


stupeO, 
^timeo, 
torpeO, 
vireo. 


to  be  amazed, 
to  fear, 
t^  be  torpid. 
to  be  green. 


Note  2.— Some  verbs,  derived  mostly  from  adjectives,  want  both  Perfect 
and  Supine.    The  following  are  the  most  important: 


albeO,     to  be  white. 
calveO,  to  be  bald, 
caneo,    to  be  gray, 
flaveo,    to  be  yellow. 


hebe(^,  to  be  blwnt. 

umeo,  to  be  moist, 

immineO,  to  threaten, 

lacteO,  to  suck. 


maere6,  to  be  sad. 

polle5,  to  be  ^oice?'/ul, 

renlde^^,  to  shine. 

squaleO,  to  be  filthy. 


1  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  pleo :  expleO,  impleO,  et^j 
«  To  these  may  be  added  aboleo,  abolere,  abolevl,  abolitum,  *  to  destroy/  with  Supina 
in  Hum.    See  also  abolisco^  277. 


SECOND   CONJUGATION, 


125 


Class  II. — Stem  in  c,  n,  r,  or  s:  Perfect  in  ui.* 

263.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  ui,  tum  or  sum.^ 
These  endings  belong  to  the  following  verbs  : 


censeo 
doceo 

misceo 

teneo 
torreo 


censere 
docere 

miscere 

tenere 
torrere 


censui 
docui 

miscui 

tenuT 
torrui 


censum,^ 
doctum, 
(  mistum,  ) 
\  mrxtum,  ) 
tentum,^ 
tostum, 


to  think, 
to  teach, 

to  mix. 

to  hold, 
to  roast. 


Glass  III. — Stem  in  a  Consonant  :  Perfect  in  si  or  i. 

264.  Princiml  Parts  in- 

augeo     j^v-c^lP^iiJgere 
induljreo    .^  <     yidulgere 


-eo. 


ere,  si,  tum. 

auxT 
e  induli 

torqueo/'^  ^  \ ;  torquere 


algeo 
ardeo 

coniveo 

frigeo 
fulgeo 
haereo 
jut)eo 
luceo 
lugeo 
-maneo 
mulgeo 
mulceo 
rideo 
suadeo 
tergeo 
turgeo 


algere 
ardere 

conivere 

frigere 

fulgere 

haerere 

jubere 

lucere 

lugere 

manere 

mulgere 

mulcere 

ridere 

suadere 

tergere 

turorere 


auxT 

indulsi 

torsi 

—60,  ere,  si, 

alsT 

auctum, 

indultum, 

tortum, 

sum.^ 

to  increase, 
to  indulge. 
to  twist, 

to  be  cold, 
to  bum. 

to  wink  at, 

to  be  cold, 
to  shine, 
to  stick, 
to  order, 
to  shine, 
to  mourn, 
to  remain, 
to  milk. 
to  soothe, 
to  laugh, 
to  advise, 
to  wipe, 
to  swell, 
to  p7'ess. 

arsi 
conivi  j^ 

arsum, 

conTxi  ) 

f  rixi  (rare) 

fulsi 

haesi 

jussi 

luxi 

5 

haesum,^ 
jussum, 

luxi 

mansi 

mulsi 

mulsi 

risi 

suasi 

tersi 

tursi (rare) 

ursi 

mansum, 

mulsum, 

mulsum,*^ 

risum, 

suasum, 

tersum, 

urged  (urgueo)   urgere 

"Note,— OieO,  ciere,  clvl,  citum^  to  arouse,  has  a  kindred  form,  cio^  cire,  clvi,  cUum^ 
from  which  it  seems  to  have  obtained  its  Perfect.  In  compounds  the  forms  of  the  Fourth 
Conj  prevail,  especially  in  the  sense  of  to  call,  call  forth. 

1  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  General  List  of  all  verbs  involving  irregularities 
will  be  found  on  page  383. 

2  The  Present  Stem  adds  e ;  see  251,  5.    Yor  phonetic  changes,  see  33-36. 

3  Participle  censics  and  censltus. — PercenseO  wants  Supine :  recenseo  has  recensum 
and  recensltum. 

*  In  most  compounds  the  Supine  is  rare. 
«  Poetic,  fulgf),  fulgere,  etc. 

•  The  stem  of  haereO  is  haes.  The  Present  adds  e  and  changes  s  to  r  between  two 
Towels.    In  haesi  and  haesum,  b  standing  for  ss  or  st  is  not  changed. 

^  In  compounds  sometimes  mulctum. 


'^f 


IFI CATION  OF  VERBS, 


266.  Principal  Parts  in— eo,  §re,  i,  turn. 

With  Lengthened  Stem- Vowel. 


caveo 
^  faveo 
foveo 
y  moved 
paveo 
voveo 


cave re 

favere 

fovere 

movere 

pavere 

vovere 


cSvi 

favl 

fovl 

movl 

pavl 

vovi 


cautum, 
fautum, 
fotum, 
motum, 


votum, 
267.  Principal  Parts  in — eo,  ere,  I,  sum. 


mordeo 
pendeo 
spondeo 
tondeo 


sedeo 
video 


comveo 

ferveo 

langueo 

liqueo 

prandeo 

strideo 


mordere 
pendere 
spondere 
tondere 


1.  With  Reduplication.  ^ 

momordi 
pependl 
spopondl 
totondi 


morsum, 
pensum,       , 
sponsum,  \n 
tOnsum,     ^  ^ 


sedere 
videre 


conlvere 

fervere 

languere 

liquere 

prandere 

stridere 


2.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Vowel. 


sedi 
vidi 


sessum,' 
visum, 


3.  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

conlvl,  conlxl  

fervi,  ferbui  . 

langui  

liqui,  licul 

prandi 
strldi 


3 


prSnsum,^ 


268.  Deponent  Verbs. 


liceor 

mereor 

polliceor 

tueor 

vereor 


fateor 
medeor 

misereor 

reor 


liceri 

mererl 

pollicerl 

tuerl 

vereri 


faterl 
medGrI 

misererl 

rerl 


1,  Regular, 

licitus  sum, 
meritus  sum, 
pollicitus  sum, 
J  tuitus  sum,  ) 
/  tutus  sum,  ) 
veritus  sum, 

2.  In'cg^dar, 

fassus  sum,^ 

j  miseritus  sum,  ) 
\  misertus  sum,  ) 
ratus  sum, 


f 


to  beware, 
to  favor, 
to  cherish, 
to  move, 
to  fear, 
to  vow. 


to  bite, 
to  hang, 
to  promise 
to  shear. 


I 


'.OSI 


to  sit, 
to  see. 


to  loink  at, 
to  boil. 

to  be  languid, 
to  be  liquid, 
to  dine, 
to  ci^eak. 


to  bid. 
to  deserve, 
to  promise, 

to  protect, 

to  fear, 

to  confess, 
to  cure, 

to  pity, 

to  think. 


1  For  reduplication  In  compounds,  see  265, 1.,  4. 

a  So  circumsedeo  and  supernedeo.    Other  compounds  thus :  assideo  ere   ass'dl 
assHamm ;  but  di&sideo,  praesided,  and  re»ideO,  want  Supine.  '       >        ^     i 

^  Observe  that  the  svpine  stem  is  wanting  in  most  of  these  verbs. 

*  Participle,  prdnsm.  In  an  active  sense,  having  dined, 

*  Conjiteor,  eH,  con/essus :  BO  prof  teor. 


r, 

■  -■» 

f 


TJIIRI)   CONJUGATION, 


127 


/ 


Audeo 

gaude6 

soleo 


3.  Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect, 

audere  ausus  sum,  to  dare. 

gaudere  gavisus  sum,  to  rejoice, 

solere  solitus  sum,  to  be  accustomed. 


J  ^  TIIIE#^OXJUGATIOX. 

Note. — This  conjugation  contains  the  primitive  verbs  of  the  language;  see  335. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  a  Consonant  :  Perfect  in  si  or  I. 

269.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  si,  turn. 

These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  whose  stems  end  in  a 


/ 
/ 


consonant. 

The  following  are  examp: 

les  :^ 

carpo 

carpere 

carpsl 

^  carptum,^ 

to  pluck. 

cmgo 

cmgere 

einxi  {gsl) 

cinctum, 

to  gird. 

dico 

dicere 

dixl 

dictum. 

to  say. 

duco 

ducere 

duxl 

ductum. 

to  lead. 

exstinguo 

exstinguere 

exstinxl 

exstinctum,^ 

to  extinguish. 

gero 

gerere 

gessi 

gestum. 

to  carry. 

nubo 

nubere 

nupsi 

nuptum. 

to  marry. 

rego 

regere 

rexi 

rectum,* 

to  rule. 

sumo 

siimere 

sumpsi  . 

sumptum, 

to  take. 

traho 

t  Inhere 

traxi 

tractum, 

to  dravj. 

uro 

tirere 

ussl 

ustum. 

to  bu7'7l. 

veho 

vehere 

vexi 

vectum. 

to  carry. 

vivo 

vivere 

vixi 

victum. 

to  live. 

270.  Pi 

incipal  Parts 

in — 0  (or  io), 

ere,  si,  sum.* 

cedo 

cedere 

cessi 

cessum, 

to  yield. 

claudo 

claudere 

clausi 

clausum,** 

to  close. 

divido 

dividere 

divisi 

divisum, 

to  divide. 

evado 

evade  re 

evSsi 

evasum,* 

to  evade. 

flgo 

figere 

fixi 

fixum, 

to  fasten. 

flecto 

flectere 

flexi 

flexum. 

to  bend. 

frendo 

frendere 

j  fresum,    ) 
l  fressum,  ) 

to  gnash. 

laedo 

laedere 

laesi 

laesum,* 

to  hurt. 

h'ldo 

Itidere 

lusi 

lusum. 

to  play. 

mitto 

mittere 

misi 

missum. 

to  send. 

mergo 

mergere 

mersi 

mersum, 

to  dip. 

necto 

nectere 

j  nexi      / 
(  nexui  ^ ) 

nexum. 

to  bind. 

pecto 

pectere 

pexi 

p6xum, 

to  comb. 

I  \i 


*  For  Phonetic  Clmnges^  see  30-36. 

2  The  stem -vowel  is  often  changed  in  compounds:  carpo^  de-ccrpo ;  regO,  dl-rigO; 
for  this  change,  see  344,  4;  also  221. 

3  So  other  compounds  of  stinguO  (rare):  dHtingiiD^  etc. 

*  Compounds  of  claudo  have  u  for  an,  con-cludo;  those  of  laedo^  t  for  ae,  il-lldo; 
those  of  plaudo  generally  o  for  aw,  ex-plodo ;  those  of  quatio,  cu  for  qua^  con-cvtio. 

*  So  other  compounds  of  vddo.  •  Compounds  take  thi^form  in  the  Perfect 

? 


128 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 


plecto 
plaudo 

plectere 
plaudere 

plSxT 
plausT 

plexum, 
plausum,^ 

to  plait, 
to  applaud. 

prem6 
quati6 

premere 
quatere 

pressl^ 
quassi* 

pressum, 
quassum,* 

to  press, 
to  shake. 

spargo 
rado 

Bpargere 
radere 

sparsi 
rSsI 

sparsum, 
rasum, 

to  scatter, 
to  shave. 

rodo 

rodere 

rosl 

rOsum, 

to  gnaw. 

tergo 
trudo 

tergere 
trudere 

tersT 
trusi 

tersum,' 
trusum, 

to  wipe  off, 
to  thrust. 

i/^ 


271.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  I,  turn. 


abdo  >n,ac:^  abdere 
^  cano  /v-s^-v^5  canere 

credo  (vct^c^^redere 
^  disco  i^j(^  ^  ^.  discere 
^pang6i/...„<jc   pangere 

pango        '       pangere 


y,  Winr  Reduplication. 


{ 


/ 
/ 

/ 


pario  parere 

sisto  sistere 

tango  tit  «■(  i»  tangere 

tendo  tendere 

• 

tollo    ^Ojg^U.  J  iollere 

vendo^L  t-C  vendere 

pungo4^,^^^ungere 


abdidi 

cecini 

credidi 

didici 

pepigl 

panxl 

pegi 

peperl 

stiti 

tetigi 

tetendl 

sustulT 

vendidi 

pupugi 


abditum,* 

cantum,^ 

creditum,^ 

pactum, 
panctum,"^  ^ 
pactum,     \ 
partum,^ 
statum,^ 
tactum,^^ 
j  tentum,^<>  \ 
\  tensura,    J 
sublatum,^^ 
venditum,' 
punctum,^^ 


2.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Vowel. 


/ 
/ 

/ 


agere 


ago     1  v-\_^c 

capio     ;^/^v  capere 

emo    V   .,>*     emere 


-J- 


€gi 

cepi 

emi 


actum,^^ 

captum,^* 

emptum,^*^ 


to  hide, 
to  sing, 
to  believe, 
to  learn, 
to  bargain, 

to  fix  in, 

to  bring  forth, 
to  place. 
to  touch, 

to  stretch, 

to  raise, 
to  sell, 
to  prick, 

to  drive, 
to  take, 
io  buy. 


^  See  page  127,  foot-note  4. 

a  See  34, 1,  note;  35,  3,  2). 

3  Also  tergeo.,  tergere.,  etc. ;  compounds  take  this  form  ;  see  265. 

*  So  all  compounds  of  do  except  those  of  Conjugation  I.;  see  259,  note  1. 

*  ConcinO,  ere^  concinm, ;  so  occino  and  praedno;  other  compounds  want 

Perfect  and  Supine. 

*  Explained  as  a  compound  of  do  ;  see  ahdO. 

"^  CompingO.,  ere,  compegl,  compactitm ;  so  also  impingO.    DepangO  wants  Perfect; 
repangO.,  Perfect  and  Supine. 

^  Participle,  pariturus :  compounds  are  of  Conjugation  IV. 

*  Compounds  thus :  consiato,  ere.,  constitl.,  constitum  ;  but  circwmstet'i  also  occurs. 
10  Compounds  drop  the  rednplication. 

1»  Attollo  and  extollo  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  thus :  comjmngo,  ere,  compuna^,  compunctum. 

"  Socircumago  and  peragO;  aatagO  w&nts  Perfect  and  Supine.  Other  compounds 
change  a  into  i  in  the  Present:  abigO,  ere,  abeg^,  abdctum;  but  coigD  becomes  cdgo., 
ere,  coegl,  coactum,  and  deigo,  dc'gD,  ere,  degl,  without  Supine.  Prvdigo  wants  Supine, 
and  ambigo^  Perfect  and  Supine. 

1*  So  antecapio;  other  compounds  thus  :  accipin,  ere,  ace^pl,  aecepium, 

"  So  eoefmo  ;  other  compounds  thus  :  adimO,  ere,  ademl.,  ademptum. 


•J' 


H 


/ 


t 


THIIiD   CONJUGATION. 


129 


J  facio 
fugio 
^  jacio 
//rangS 

J  lego 
/  linquo 
/  scabo 


vmco 
rumpo 


facere 

fugere 

jacere 

frangere 

legere 

linquere 

scabere 

vincere 

rumpere 


cado  InxJC 
caedrf^}^,.  ' 


/ 

/ 

/     curro  >   c,  V 

^  fallo  ,'  U.^ti 
/    parco  X  jrr^K.  parcere 

/^pello  ^l^c.t-^^^pellere 
/  pendo 

/  posco 

tundo 


feci 

fugi 

jeci 

fregi 

legl 

llqui 

scab! 

vici 

rupi 


factum,* 

fugitum, 

jactum,^ 

fractum,' 

lectum,* 


victum, 
ruptum, 

272.  Principal  Parts  in— 0  (or  io),  ere,  I,  sum. 

1.  With  Reduplication. 


to  make, 
to  flee, 
to  throw, 
to  break, 
to  read, 
to  leave, 
to  scratch, 
to  conquer, 
to  bui'st. 


*  ^r. 


/ 


edo 

fodio 

fundo 


accendo 

cudo 

defendo 


cadere  cecidi 

eaedere  cecidi 

ourrere  cucurri 

follere  fefelll 

peperci  (pars!) 

pepuli 
pendere  pependi 

poscere  poposci 

tundere  tutudi 

tusum, 

2.  With  Lengthened  Stem-Vowel. 
edere  edi  esum, 

fodere  fodi  ^-  fossum, 

fundere  fudl  ^     fusum, 


cSsum,'' 

caesum,^ 

cursum,^ 

falsum,^^ 

parsum," 

pulsum,^* 

pensum,^^ 

13 

j  tunsum,^^ 
\  tui 


} 


3.  With  Unchanged  Stem. 

accendere  accendi                accensum,^* 

cudere  ciidi                       cusum, 

defendere  defend! 


defensum,^* 


to  fall, 
to  cut, 
to  run, 
to  deceive, 
to  spare, 
toihnve, 
to  weigh, 
to  demand. 

to  beat. 


to  cat. 
to  dig. 
to  pour. 

to  kindle, 
to  forge. 
to  defend. 


1  Passive  irregular:  flO,  fieri,  /actus  sum;  see  294.  So  satis/acid  and  compounds 
of  facio  with  verbs ;  but  compounds  with  prepositions  thus  :  conficio,  conficere,  6dnfec% 
confectum;  with  regular  Passive,  conficior,  confici,  confectvs  sum. 

'-'  SuperjaciO  has  jactum  or  jectum  in  Supine :  compounds  with  monosyllabic  prepo- 
sitions thus :  abicio,  abicere.,  abject,  abjectum  ;  see  page  20,  foot-note  1. 

3  Compounds  thus :  confringD,  ere,  confregi,  cnnfrdctum. 

*  So  compounds,  except  (1)  colligD,  ere,  collegl,  collect/um;  so  dellgo,  eligO,  seHgD—(2) 
dlligO,  ere,  dllixl,  dUectum  ;  so  intellegd,  neglegO,  though  neglegl  occurs  in  the  Perfect. 

*  Compounds  with  Supine :  relinqtcO,  ere,  rellqui,  relictum. 
«  For  Phonetic  Changes,  see  30-36. 

^  iTUiidO,  ere,  incidl,  incdsum  ;  so  occidO  and  recido;  other  compounds  want  Supine. 
®  Compounds  thus:  conctdo,  ere,  concldl,  concUum. 

*  Excurro  and  praecurrO  generally  retain  the  reduplication :  excuctirrl,  praecucvr- 
ri  ;  other  compounds  generally  drop  it. 

10  Refello,  ere,  refelll,  without  Supine. 

11  Comparco,  ere^  comparsl,  com  par  stem,  also  with  e  for  a:  compered,  ere,  etc. 
Imparco  and  reparco  want  Perfect  and  Supine. 

12  Compounds  drop  reduplication,  255,  I.,  4. 

13  Compounds  retain  redupUcation,  255, 1.,  4. 

1*  So  other  compounds  of  the  obsolete  cando  &nd/endo. 


/ 


130 

j&ndo 

Ic6 

mando 

pando 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS 


findere 

icere 

mandere 

pandere 


pinso  (piso)    pmsere 


/ 


prehendo 

scando 

scindo 

solvo 

vello 

verro 

verto 

viso 

volvo 


/ 


/ 


prehendere, 

scandere 

scindere 

solvere 

vellere 

verrere 

vertere 

visere 

volvere 


fidi  (findi) 

Id 

mandl 

pandl 

j  pinsi 
j  pinsul 

prehendi 

scandi 

scidi 

solvl 

velli  (vulsi) 

verri 

verti 

visi 

volvi 


I 


fissum, 
Ictum, 
mansum, 
passum,  ) 
pansum,  \ 

\  pinsitum, 

•J  pistum, 

(  pinsum, 
prehensum,^ 
scansum, 
scissum, 
solutum,' 
vulsum, 
versum, 
versum,^ 
visum, 
volutum, 


to  part 
to  strike, 
to  chew, 

to  open, 

to  pound, 

to  grasp, 
to  climb, 
to  rend, 
to  loose, 
to  plucli, 
to  brush, 
to  turn, 
to  visit, 
to  roll. 


Note  1.— Some  verbs  with  the  Perfect  in  si  or  I  want  the  Supine : 

to  fear. 


ango,  ere,  anxi, 
annuo,  ere,  i, 
batuO,  ere,  i, 
bibo,  ere,  i, 
congruO,  ere,  i, 
ingruO,  ere,  i, 
lambo,  ere,  i, 


to  squeeze, 
to  assent, 
to  beat, 
to  drink, 
to  agree, 
to  assail, 
to  lick. 


metuO,  ere,  i, 

pluO,  ere,  i,  or  pluvi,     to  rain. 

ppallo,  ere,  i,  to  play  the  harp. 

sido,  ere,  i,*  to  sit  down. 

ning5.  ere,  ninxT,  to  snow. 

strldo,  ere,  i,  to  creak. 

sternud,  ere,  i,  to  sneeze. 


Note  2.— Some  verbs  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine  : 

clang6,  to  clang.  hisc5, 

claudo,  to  be  lame,  vado, 

fatiscd,  to  gape.  temnft, 

gliscd,  to  grow. 


vergo, 

Consonant 


to  gape, 
to  go.^ 
to  despise.^ 
to  incline. 


Class  IL— Stem  in  a 

273.  Principal  Parts  in— 0  (or  io),  ere,  ui,  itum. 
accumbo         accumbere         accubui  accubitum,"^ 

alul 


Perfect  in  ui. 


alo 

depso 

elicio 

fremo 

gemo 

gigno 

mold 


alere 

depsere 

glicere 

fremere 

gemere 

gignere 

molere 


depsui 

glicui 

fremui 

gemui 

genui 

molul 


(  ahtura,  ) 
\  altum,    ) 
\  depsitum,  ) 
(  depstum,   ) 
elicitum,® 
fremitum, 
gemitum, 
genitum, 
molitum. 


to  recline, 
to  nourish, 

to  knead, 

to  elicit, 
to  rage, 
to  groan, 
to  beget, 
to  grind. 


1  Often  written prendo^  prendere,  etc.  ^^^!/V'^£^-? 

2  F  is  here  changed  to  its  corresponding  vowel  u  .-^solhtunirfot  soMum. 

3  Compounds  of  de,  prae,  re,  are  generally  deponent  in  the  Present,  Imperfect,  and 

Future. 

*  Perfect  and  Supine  generally  supplied  from  sedeO;  hence  sedJ,  sessum.    So  in  com- 
pounds. 

6  SeeevddO,  370. 

«  But  contemnO,  ere,  contempsl,  contemptum. 

f  So  other  compounds  of  cumbo,  cubd;  see  cuho,  358. 

8  Other  compounds  of  lacio  thus :  allicio,  allicere,  allSxl,  allectum. 


/ 


\ 


THIRD    CONJUGATION. 


131 


: 


/ 


iy 


pInso 

pono 

strepo 

vomo 


pinsere 

ponere 

strepere 

vomere 


]P1 


pinsui 
pinsi 


posui 

strepui 

vomui 


pinsitum, 

pistum, 

pinsum, 

positura, 

strepitum, 

vomitum. 


to  crush, 

to  place, 

to  make  a  noise, 

to  vomit. 


'SoTE.—CompescO,  'to  restrain';  ete-celld,^  *to  excel';  /urO,  'to  rage';  sterto,  *to 
snore ' ;  and  tremo,  '  to  tremble,'  have  the  Perfect  in  ul,  but  want  the  Supine. 

274.  Principal  Parts  in — 0  (or  io),  ere,  ui,  tiim. 


/ 
/ 


colo 

colere 

coluT 

cultum, 

to  cultivate. 

consulo 

consulere 

consului 

consultum, 

to  consult. 

occulo 

occulere 

occulul 

occultum, 

io  hide. 

rapid 

rapere 

rapui 

raptum,* 

to  snatch. 

sero 

serere 

serui 

sertum. 

to  connect. 

texo 

texere 

texui 

textum. 

to  weave. 

275. 

Principal  Parts  in — 0,  ere,  sui,  sum. 

meto 

metere 

messul  ^ 

messum, 

to  reap. 

necto 

nectere 

j  nexl     ( 
(  uexui  ) 

nexum, 

to  bind. 

Class  III. — Stem  in  a  Vowel  :  Perfect  in  vi  or  i. 

276.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  avi  from  a  stem  in  a : 
pasco'*  pascere  pavl  piistum,  to  feed. 


sterno 
veterasco 


pascere 

stemere 

veterascere 


stravi 
veteravl 


stratum. 


to  strew, 
to  grow  old. 


277.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  evi  from  a  stem  in  e : 


/ 


abolesco 

cerno 

ere SCO 

quicsco 

sperno 

suesco 


abolescere 

cernere 

crescere 

quiescere 

spernere 

suescere 


abolevi 

crevi 

ere  VI 

quievi 

sprevi 

suevi 


abolitum,^ 

cretum, 

cretum,* 

quietum, 

spretum, 

suetum. 


to  disappear, 

to  decide. 

to  grow, 

to  rest. 

to  spurn. 

to  become  accustomed. 


Note.— 8er6,  serere,  sevi,  satum,^  to  sow. 

278.  The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  ivi  from  a  stem  in  i: 

arcesso  arcessere  arcessTvi  arcessTtum,     to  call  for. 

capesso  capessere  capessivi  capessTtum,     to  lay  hold  of. 

cupio  cupere  cuplvi  cupitum,  to  desire. 

facessivi 

facessi 


facesso 


facessere 


(  facessivi  ) 
\  facessi     ) 


facessitum,     to  make. 


*  Other  compounds  of  cello  want  the  Perfect  and  Supine,  except  percello,  percellere, 
perculi,  perculsv/nt. 

2  Compounds  thus  :  corripio,  corripere,  corripui,  correptum. 

^  The  Perfect  in  sul  seems  to  be  a  double  formation,  si  enlarged  to  sul. 

*  The  stem  otpdsco  is pd,  pd^ ;  the  Present  Stem  adds  see;  see  351,  2. 

*  So  inolescO ;  but  adolesoD  has  Supine  adultum ;  exoUscO,  exoUtum  ;  obsolesoO^ 
obsoletum, 

«  IncrescO  and  sucorescO  want  the  Supine. 

^  Compounds  thus  :  conserf),  amserere,  conssvi,  consitum. 


132 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   VFI^BS. 


^^ 


/ 


inc6ss5 

lacesso 

lino 

nosco 

peto 

quaero 

rudo 

sapio 

sino 

tero 


incessere 

lacessere 

linere 

noscere 

petere 

quaerere 

rudere 

sapere 

sinere 

terere 


( incSssIvi  ) 
\  incessi      \ 


incSssIvi 

incessi 

lacessivl 

llvi,  l6vi 

novi 

petlvi 

quaesivi 

rudlvi 

sapTvi,  sapui 

sivi 

trlvl 


lacessltum, 

litum, 

notum,' 

petitum, 

quaesltiim,' 

ruditum, 

f- 

Bitum,    4 
tritum,    , 

279.  Principal  Parts  in— 0,  ere,  i,  turn. 

These  are  the  regular  endings  in  verbs  with  u-stems. 
are  examples : 


< 
f 


r 


acuo 

arguo 

imbuo 

minuo 

ruo 

statuo 

tribuo 


acuere 

arguere 

imbuere 

minuere 

mere 

statuere 

tribuere 


acul 

argul 

imbul 

minui 

rui 

statui 

tribui 


Note.— ^^1^  and  stiru^y  have  the  Perfect  in  xi. 
fluo  fluere  fluxi  ^ 

struo  struere  struxi  ^ 


actitum, 

argutum, 

imbutum, 

minutum, 

rutum, 

statutum, 

tributum, 

fluxum, 
structum, 


1 


to  attack. 

to  provoke, 
to  smear, 
to  know, 
to  ask. 
to  seek, 
to  bray, 
to  taste, 
to  permit, 
to  rub. 


The  following 

« 

to  sharpen, 
to  convict, 
to  imbue, 
to  diminish, 
to  fall, 
to  place, 
to  impart. 

to  flow., 
to  build. 


Inceptives. 

280.  Inceptives  end  in  sco,  and  denote  the  beginning  of 
an  action. 

Note.— When  formed  from  verbs,  they  are  called  Verbal  Inceptives,  and 
when  formed  from  nouns  or  adjectives,  Denominative  Inceptives. 

281.  Most  Verbal  Inceptives  want  the  Supine,  but  take  the  Perfect 
of  their  primitives : 


acescO 

fire SCO 

calescO 

florescO 

tep6sc6 

virgsco 


{ace6) 

{dred) 

(caled) 

(floret) 

(iepeO) 

(vtred) 


acescere 

firescere 

calescere 

florescere 

tepescere 

virgscere 


acul 

ami 

calul 

florul 

tepul 

virul 


to  become  sour, 
to  become  dry. 
to  become  warm, 
to  begin  to  bloom, 
to  become  warm, 
to  become  green. 


Note.— The  following  take  the  Perfect  and  Supine  of  their  primitives: 


concupiscd 

coDvalescO 

exardescO 

inveterascd 

obdormisco 

reviviscO 

seised 


(con,  cupid)  ere 

(con^  valei))  eve 

(ex,  drdeo)  ere 

linveterO)  ere 

(o6,  dormici)  ere 

{re,  v'l/vO)  ere 

(sciB)  ere 


concupivi 

convalul 

exarsi 

in  Vetera  vi 

obdormJyi 

revTxi 

Bcivi 


concupitum, 

c-  nvalitum, 

exareum, 

inveteratum, 

obdormitum, 

revTctum, 

scltum, 


to  deffire. 
to  grow  strong, 
to  burn, 
to  grmc  old. 
to  /all  asleep, 
to  revive, 
to  enact. 


1  So  Ignosco;  dgndsco  and  cognoscO  have  Hum  in  Supine,  dgnilum;  dlgnoscG  and 
intemdscD  want  Supine. 

'  Compounds  thus  :  a^quiro,  ere,  acq^iisivt,  acqumttim. 

»  For  Jlug-8i,  strug-81,  formed  not  from  w-stems,  but  from  consonant-stems. 


THIRD   CONJUGATION, 


133 


282.  Most  DenomIxVative  Inceptives  want  both  Perfect  and  Supine : 


r 


ditescO        (d^ves^,        to  grow  rich. 
dulcesc5      {dulcu),      to  become  sweet. 
grandescO  (grandis),   to  grow  large. 


miteso*     (mitis)^     to  grow  mild, 
mollesco  {mollis)^  to  arow  soft. 
puerasco   (puer)^     to  become  a  boy. 


NOTE.- 

crC'brescd 

durC'SCd 

jnnotescO 

macrescO 

maturescO 

obmutescO 

recrudescd 

vilesco 


-The  following  have  the  Perfect  in  ui : 

(creber) 
(durus) 
{in,  notus) 


Imacer) 
(mdturus) 
(ob,  mutus) 
(re,  crUdus) 
(vilis) 


ere 
ere 
ere 
ere 
ere 
ere 
ere 
ere 


crebruT, 

durui, 

innotui, 

macrul, 

matiiruT, 

obmutui, 

recrudul, 

vilui,      . 


283.  Deponent  Verbs. 

amplector 
apiscor 
comminiscor 
expergiscor 
fatiscor    ^ 

fruor 

fungor 

gradior 

irascor 

labor 

liquor 

loquor 

morior 

nanciscor 

nSscor 

nltor 

obllviscor 

paciscor 

patior 

proficiscor 

queror 

remiftierot 

ringor 

sequor 

ulciscor 

titor 

vescor 


amplexus  sum, 
apt  us  sum,* 
comment  us  sum,' 
experrectus  sum, 

j  fructus  sum,  ) 
(  fruitus  sum,  ) 
functus  sum, 
gressus  sum,* 


(iri,  rare) 


lapsus  sum, 

locutus  sum, 

mortuus  sum,^ 

nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

natus  sum,^ 
(  nisus  sum,  ) 
1  nixus  sum,  j* 

oblitus  sum, 

pactus  sum, 

passus  sum, 

profectus  sum, 

questus  sum. 


rictus  sum, 
sectitus  sum, 
ultus  sum, 
usus  sum, 


to  become  frequent, 
to  become  hard, 
to  become  known, 
to  become  lean, 
to  ripen, 
to  grow  dumb, 
to  bleed  afresh, 
to  become  worthless. 


to  cmhrace. 
to  obtain, 
to  devise, 
to  awake, 
to  gape. 

to  enjoy. 

to  poform. 
to  locdk. 
to  be  angry, 
to  fall, 
to  melt, 
to  speak, 
to  die. 
to  obtain, 
to  be  born, 

to  strive. 

to  forget, 
to  bargain, 
to  suffer, 
to  set  out. 
to  complain, 
to  remember, 
to  growl, 
to  follow, 
to  avenge, 
to  use. 
to  eat. 


fido 


Semi-Deponent — Deponent  in  the  Perfect. 
fidere  f  Isus  sum. 


to  trust. 


*  Adipiscor,  1,  adepttcs  sum  ;  so  indipiscor. 
"^  Com-miniscor  isjjompounded  of  con,  and  the  obsolete  miniscor ;  re-miniscof 

wants  the  Perfect. 

3  De-fetiscor^  f,  de^msus  sum. 

*  Compounds  thns^Mggredior,  I,  aggresstis  sum. 

*  Morior  has  futur^BrticipIe  moriturus;  ndscor^  ndsciturus. 


134 


CLASSIFICATION  OF   VERBS, 


FOURTH   CONJUGATION. 

Class  I. — Stem  in  i:  Perfect  in  vI. 


284.  Principal  Parts  in — io,  ire 
The  following  are  examples : 


/ 


lenlre 


/ 


finitum,  myimji. 

lenitum,  to  alleviate, 

manitum,  to  fortify, 

punitum,  to  punish, 

scitum,  to  knoio, 

sepultum,^  io  burif, 

to  thirst, 

to  cry. 

Note  1.—  Fis  often  dropped  in  the  Perfect :  audii  for  audlvl ;  see  235,  1. 

Note  2.— Desideratives  (338,  III.)— except  esurio,  ire, ,  Umii ;  nup- 

turid,  Ire,  Ivl,  and  parturio,  Ire,  iz;i— want  both  Perfect  and  Supine.  Also  a 
few  others : 


finio  *  t 

lenio  

munio  fcrvkM)^] 

/^    scio  ^^^^t«-8clre 
y      sepeho  sepelire 

sitio  sitire 

vagio  vagire 


finivl 

lenivi 

munlvl 

piinivi 

scivi 

sepellvl 

sitivi 

vagivi 


balbutid, 
caecutio, 
ferio, 


to  fttammer, 
to  he  blind. 
to  strike. 


ferocio,       to  he  fierce. 
gannio,        to  hark. 
ineptio,       to  trifle. 


sapio,  to  he  wise. 

superbio,     to  be  proud. 
tussio,         to  cough. 


Class  II.— Stem  in  c,  1,  or  r:  Perfect  in  ui. 

285.  Principal  Parts  in— iO,  ire,  ui,  turn. 


y 


amicio  amicTre 

aperiov  -^^^  aperire 


operio 
salio   . 


operire 
.  -  salire 


amicul  (xi)  araictum, 

aperul  apertum, 

operui  opertum, 

salui  (ii)  (saltum),2 


to  clothe, 
to  open, 
to  cover, 
to  leap. 


Class  III.— Stem  in  a  Consonant  :  Perfect  in  si  or  i. 

286.  Principal  Parts  in— iO,  ire,  si,  turn. 


farcire 


/• 


/ 


farcio 

fulcio 
haurio^ 
saepio        ^» 

sancio^  "^^nclre 

sarcio       /^  sarcire 
vincio(jv>^vincIre 


Mcire 

sM- « fcurlre 

saepire 


farsl 

fulsl 

hausi 

saepsi 

sanxi 

sarsl 
vinxi 


) 


fartum,^  ) 
farctum,  ) 


fultum, 

haustum,  hausura, 

saeptum, 
(  sancltum,  ) 
/  sanctum,   ) 

sartum, 

vinctum, 


to  stuff, 

to  prop, 
to  dravj. 
to  hedge  in. 

to  ratiftj. 

to  patch, 
to  bind^ 


*  Supine  irregular. 

2  Compounds  thus:  deMlio,  Ire,  ul  {il\  (demltum). 
8  Compounds  thus :  c&nfercio,  Ire.  confersl,  confertum. 

*  The  stem  of  haurio  is  kaus.    The  Present  adds  I  and  changes  *  to  r  between  two 
vowels.    In  hausl  and  /uti'sum,  ,s  standing  for  ,9.<?  or  st  is  not  changed. 


287. 


^ 


raucio 
sentio 


IRREGULAR    VERBS, 

Principal  Parts  in — io.  Ire,  si,  sum. 

rauclre  rausi  rausum, 


sentlre 


sensi 


sensum. 


Note. — The  following  verbs  have  the  Perfect  in  i  : 


^ 


compeno 

reperio 

venio 


comperire 

reperire 

venire 


comperi. 
reperi 
vCni  ^ 


compertum, 

repertum, 

ventum, 


288.  Deponent  Verbs. 


blandior 

largior 

>  mentior 

molior 

^  partior 

^  potior  2 

^  sortior 


assentior  ^ 
.  experior 
metior 

opperior 

X  ordior 
^    orior 


/ 


in 
iri 
iri 
iri 
iri 
iri 
iri 


in 
Tri 
iri 

iri 

irT 
irl 


1.  Regular, 

blandltus  sum, 
largitus  sum, 
mentltus  sum, 
molitus  sum, 
partitus  sum, 
potitus  sum, 
sortltus  sum, 

2.  Irregular, 


\ 


assensus  sura, 
expertus  sum, 
mensus  sum, 
oppertus  sum,    ) 
opperitus  sum,  J 
orsus  sum, 
ortus  sum,^ 


135 


to  he  hoarse, 
to  feel. 


to  learn, 
to  find, 
to  come. 


to  flatter, 
to  bestow, 
to  lie, 
to  strive, 
to  divide, 
to  obtain, 
to  draw  lots. 


to  absent. 

to  try. 

to  measure, 

to  await. 

to  begin, 
to  rise. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

289.  A  few  verbs  which  have  special  irregularities  are 
called  by  way  of  preeminence  Irregular  or  Anofnalous 
Verbs.  They  are  sum,  edo,  fero,  volo,  fid,  eo,  qued,  and 
their  compounds. 

290.  Sum,  ^I  am/  and  its  compounds. 

I.  The  conjugation  of  mm  has  been  already  given  (204) ;  its  numerous 
compounds — absum,^  adsum,  desum,  praesum,^  etc. — except  possum  and  pro- 
sum,  are  conjugated  in  the  same  way. 

*  With  lengthened  stem-vowel. 

2  In  the  Present  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  forms  of  Conjugation  III.  occur. 

3  Compounded  oia>d  and  sentio  ;  see  387. 

*  Participle,  ori^wrws.— Present  Indicative,  Conjugation  III.,  oreris,  oritur.  Imper- 
fect Subjunctive,  orirer  or  orerer.—^o  compounds,  but  adorior  follows  Conjugation  IV. 

*  Abaum  and  praesum,  like  possum,  have  Present  Participles,  ahsens  and  praesens^ 
used  as  adjectives,  absent,  present. 


IHK 


136 


II.  Possum, 


SINGULAR. 

Pres.  possum,  potes,  potest ; 

Imp.   poteram;* 

Fut    potero ; 

Perf.  potui; 

Plup.  potueram ; 

P,  P.  potuero ; 


IRREGULAR    VERBS, 

posse,  potiii. 

Indicative. 


to  he  able. 


PLURAL. 

possumus,  potestis,  possunt. 

poteramus. 

poterimus. 

potuimus. 

potuerSmus. 


potuerimus. 

Subjunctive. 

Pres,  possim,  possis,  possit;         posslmus,  possTtis,  possint. 


Imp.  possem; 
Perf.  potuerim ; 
Plup.  potuissem ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  posse. 
Perf.  potuisse. 


p5ssemus. 

potuerimus. 

potuissemus. 

Participle. 

Pres.  potens  {as  an  adjective). 


Note  l.—Po8»um  is  compounded  of  po f is,  'able,*  and  sum,  'to  be/    The  parts  are 
sometimes  separated,  and  then  potis  is  indeclinable :  potis  *wm,  potis  sumua,  etc. 
Note  2. — In  possum  observe — 

1)  Thtit  potis  drops  is,  and  that  t  is  assimilated  before  s:  possum  for  potsum, 

2)  That /of  the  simple  is  dropped  after  t:  potul  for  pot/ut. 

8)  That  the  Infinitive  posse  and  Subjunctive  possem  are  shortened  forms  for  potesse 
and  potessem. 

Note  S.—For  Old  and  Rare  Forms,  see  J304,  2. 

III.  Prosum^  '  I  profit/  is  compounded  of  /w-o,  jw-og?,  '  for,'  and  sum,  *  to 
be.'     It  retains  d  when  the  simple  verb  begins  with  e:  pt^dsum,  prodes 
prodesty  etc.     Otherwise  it  is  conjugated  like  sum. 

29 1 .  Edo,  edere,  edi,  esum,  to  eat 

This  verb  is  sometimes  regular,  and  sometimes  takes  forms  similar, 
except  in  quantity,*  to  those  of  sum  which  begin  in  es.     Thus 


Pres,    \ 


edo. 


Imp.    \ 
(  e 


ederem, 
essem. 


edis, 
es,  * 


edergs, 

6sses, 


Indicative. 

edit ;  edimus, 

est; 

Subjunctive. 

ederet ;  ederSmus, 

esset ;  essemus. 


editis, 
6stis. 


ederetis, 
essetis. 


edunt. 


ederent. 
essent. 


»  Inflected  regularly  through  the  different  persons :  poteram,  poterds,  poterat,  etc. 
So  also  in  the  other  tenses :  potul.,  potuistl,  etc. 

2  These  forms  have  e  long  before  «,  while  the  corresponding  forms  of  sum  have  e  short. 


(  ede; 
•"•   1es;> 

{  esto; 


Pi 
Fut 


Pres, 


IRREGULAR    VERBS. 
Imperative. 

edite. 
este. 
editote, 
estote. 

Infinitive. 

edere. 


137 


edunto. 


gsse. 


Note  1.— In  the  Passive,  estur  for  editur  and  essetur  for  ederetur  also  occur. 

Note  2. — Forms  in  im  for  am  occur  in  the  Present  Subjunctive :  edim,  edU,  edit, 
etc.,  for  edam,  edds,  edat,  etc. 

Note  8.— Compounds  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  comedo  has  in  the  Su- 
pine com£Sum  or  comestum. 


292.  Fero, 


ferre, 


tulL 


latum, 


to  hear. 


ACTIVE    VOICE. 


n. 


Nl/ 


Subjunctive. 


Indicative. 

SINGULAR. 

Pres.  fero,  fers,  fert; 
Imp.   f  erebam  ;  ^ 
Fut.    feram ; 
Perf  tujl^^ 
Plup.  ilile^m ; 
F.  P.  tufero ; 

Pres.  feram; 
Imp.    f  errem ; 
Perf.  tulerim; 
Plup,  tulissem ; 

Pres,  fer;* 
Fut,    ferto, 
f  erto ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  ferre.* 
Perf,  tulisse. 
Fut,    laturus  esse. 


Imperative. 


PLURAL. 

ferimus,  fertis,'  ferunt. 

ferebamus. 

feremus. 

tulimus. 

tuleramus. 

tulerimus. 

feramus. 
ferremus."* 
tulerimus. 
tulissemus. 

ferte. 
ferto  te,' 
ferunto. 


Participle. 

Pres,  ferens. 
Fut.  laturus. 


\  1  See  page  136,  foot-note  2. 
«  Fer-s,  fer-t,  fer-tis,  like  es-t,  es-tis,  dispense  with  the  usual  thematic  vowel  i. 
With  such  vowel  the  forms  would  be  feris,  ferit,  feritis. 
3  Inflect  the  several  tenses  in  full :  f erebam,  ferebds,  etc. 
*  Ferrem,  etc.,  for  fererem,  etc. ;  ferre  for  ferere  (6  dropped). 
6  Fer  for  fere;  ferto,  ferte,  fertote,  ferris,  fertur,  without  thematic  vowel. 


n* 


138 


IRREGULAR    VERBS, 


IRREGULAR    VERBS, 


139 


Gerund. 

Gen.  ferendr, 

Dat,  ferendo, 

Ace,  ferendum, 

Abl.  ferendo. 


Supine. 


Ace,  latum, 
Ahl,  latu. 


feror, 


PASSIVE  VOICE, 
ferri,  latus  sum, 

Indicative. 


to  he  'borne. 


SINGULAR. 

Prcs.  feror,  f erris,  f ertur ;  ^ 

Imp.   ferebar ; 

Fut.    f  erar ; 

Ferf.  latus  sum ; 

Pliip,  latus  eram ; 

F.  P,  latus  ero ; 


Pres.  ferar; 
Lnp.    f errer ;  * 
Per/,  latus  sim ; 
Plup.  latus  essem ; 

Prcs.  ferre;^ 

Fut,    fei-tor,* 

f crtor ; 

Infinitive. 

Pres.  ferri.* 
Perf.  latus  esse. 
Fut,    latum  iri. 


Subjunctive. 


Imperative. 


PLURAL. 

ferimur,  feriuunl,  feruntur. 

ferebamur. 

feremur. 

lati  sumus. 

lati  eramus. 

latl  erimus. 

feramur. 
ferremur. 
lati  simus. 
latl  ess^mus. 

ferimiui. 

feruntor. 


Participle. 

Perf,  latus. 
Gei\    ferendus. 


1.  FerO  has  two  principal  irregularities ; 

1)  Its  forms  are  derived  from  three  independent  stems,  seen  in  fero^  tuU, 
latum. 

2)  It  dispenses  with  the  thematic  vowel,  e  or  *,  before  r,  «,  and  f, 

2.  Compounds  of /ero  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  in  a  few  of 
them  the  preposition  suffers  a  euphonic  change : 


a'- 

aufer5 

auferre 

abstuli 

ablatum 

ad- 

adferO 

adferre 

attull 

allatum 

con' 

c5nfer5 

conferre 

contull 

collatura 

dis- 

differs 

differrc 

distuli 

dilatum 

ex- 

effero 

efferre 

extuli 

elatum 

tn- 

InferO 

Inferre 

•  intuli 

illatum 

oh- 

offera 

offerre 

obtuli 

oblatum 

6uh- 

sufferO 

sutferre 

BUStull 

sublatum 

'So'V'R.—Sustull  and 
they  supply  the  Perfect 

293.  Vol6, 
Nolo, 
Malo, 


8uhldtv/m  are  not  often  used  in  the  sense  of  sufferO,  to  bear,  but 
and  Supine  oitollo,  to  raise;  see  /J71. 


Pres. 


Imp. 

Fut. 

Perf, 

Plup. 

F.P, 


volo, 

vis, 

vult; 

volumus, 

vultis, 

volu] 

volebam. 

volam. 

volul. 

volueram. 

voluero. 


Pres.  velim.* 
Imp.  vellem.'^ 
Pe7f.  voluerim. 
Plup.  voluissem. 


Pres.  velle. 
Pejf,  voluisse. 

Pres.  volens. 


velle,  volui, 

nolle,  nolui, 

malle,  malui. 

Indicative. 

nolo, 
non  vis, 
non  vult ; 
nolumus, 
non 
nolui 
loTibam. 
nolam. 
nolui. 
nolueram. 
noluero. 

Subjunctive. 

nolim. 
nollem. 
noluerim. 
noluissem. 

Imperative. 

Pres,  noli,  nolite. 

Fut,    nollto,      nolltote, 
nolito ;     nOlunto. 

Infinitive. 

nolle, 
noluisse. 

Participle. 

nolens. 


to  he  willing, 
to  he  unwilling, 
to  prefer, 

malo, 

mavis, 

mavult ; 

malumus, 

mavulvx^^ 

■maWntT 

malebam. 

malam. 

malui. 

malueram. 

maluero. 

malim. 
mallem. 
maluerim. 
maluissem. 


malle. 
maluisse. 


*  Without  then[iatic  vowel. 


I  nolens.  | 

Note  1. — The  stem  of  void  is  vol,  with  variable  stem-vowel,  o,  e,  u. 

Note  2. — NOlo  is  compounded  of  Tie  or  non  and  volo  ;  malO,  of  magis 
and  volo. 

Note  3. — Rare  Forms. — (1)  Of  vol5:  volt,  voltis,  for  vult,  vultis;  sis, 
sultisy  for  si  vw,  si  vultis  ;  vxrC  for  visne, — (2)  Of  nolO  :  nevxs,  nevult  (nevoll), 

1  Velim  is  Inflected  like  aim,  and  vellem  like  essem. 

2  Vellem  and  t^elle  are  syncopated  forms  for  'velerem,  velere;  e  is  dropped  and  r 
assimilated:  velerem,  velrem,  vellem;  velere,  velre,  velle.  So  nollem  and  nolle,  for 
vcierem  and  nolere;  mallem  and  malle,  for  mdlerem  and  mdlcre. 


siSimtmii 


140 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 


141 


ndvelle,  for  non  (ne)  vis,  ndn  (ti^)  vult,  nolle. — (3)  Of  malO  :  mavoloj  mavelim^ 
mctvellemy  for  mdlo,  mcilim,  m&llem. 


294.  Fio,          fieri, 

factus  suui. 

to  l)€Come^  oe  made.  * 

SINGULAR. 

Indicative. 

PLURAL. 

Pres,  fio,  fis,  fit; 

flmus,  fitis,  fiunt. 

Imp.    fiebam ; 

fiebamus. 

Fut.    flam ; 

- 

fiemus. 

P(yi'f,  f actus  sum ; 

facti  sumus. 

Plup.  f actus  eram ; 

fact!  eramus. 

F.  P.  f actus  ero ; 

facti  erimus. 

Pres.  fiam ; 

Subjunctive. 

fiamus. 

Imp.   fierem ; 

fieremus. 

Perf.  factus  sim ; 

fact!  simus. 

Plup.  factus  essem 

• 

facti  essemus. 

Pres.  fi; 

Imperative. 

fite. 

IlSFINITIVE. 

Participle. 

Pres.  fieri. 

• 

Perf.  factus  esse. 

Perf 

.  factus. 

Fut.    factum  iri. 

Ger. 

faciendus. 

295.  Eo,            ire, 

ivi,            itum,            to  go. 

Pres.  eo,  is,  it ; 

Indicative. 

imus,  Itis,  eunt. 

Imp.   ibam; 

Tbamus. 

Fut.    ibo; 

ibimus. 

Perf.  ivl ; 

ivimus. 

Plup.  Iveram ; 

iverSmus. 

F.  P.  ivero ; 

iverimus. 

Pres.  earn; 

Subjunctive. 

eamus. 

Imp.  Irem ; 

Iremus. 

Perf.  Iverim ; 

ivenmus. 

Plup.  ivissem ; 

ivissSmus. 

Pres.  i; 

Imperative. 

Ite. 

Fut.    Ito, 

itote, 

Ito; 

eunto. 

I 


Infinitive. 

Pres.  ire. 
Pe7f.  ivisse. 
Fut.    iturus  esse. 

Gerund. 

Gen.  eundi, 

Dat.  eundo, 

,Acc.  eundum, 

Abl.  eundo. 


Participle. 

Pres.  iens,      ^   Ge7t.  euntis. 

A. 

Fut.    iturus. 

SurtNE. 

I 

V* 

Ac^  itum, 
Abl.    itu. 


1.  Eoia&  verb  of  the  Fourth  Conjugation,  but  it  forms  the  Supine  with  a  short  vowel 
(itum),  and  is  irregular  in  several  pai-ts  of  the  Present  System.  It  admits  contraction 
according  to  235  :  Isiis  for  wlsiis,  etc. 

2.  Eo,  as  an  intransitive  verb,  wants  the  Passive,  except  when  used  impersonally  in. 
the  third  singular,  Uur,  Ibdtur,  etc.  (301, 1),  but  iri,  the  Passive  Infinitive,  occurs  as  ^' 
auxiliary  in  the  Future  Infinitive  Passive  of  the  regular  conjugations :  amdtum  iri,  eic.' 

8.  Compounds  of  eO  generally  shorten  ivl  into  i?.  VineO  (venum  eO)  has  sometimes 
veniebam  for  venlbam.  Many  compounds  want  the  Supme,  and  a  few  admit  in  the 
Future  a  rare  form  in  earn,  ies,  iet. 

Note  1. — Transitive  compounds  have  the  Passive:  adeo,  to  approach;  adeor,fkc,. 

2^0TE  ^.—ArnbUi  is  regular,  hke  audio,  though  amblbam  for  ambiebam  o^Qdrs. 

296.  Queo,  quire,  quj^l,  quitum,  to  be  able,  and  nequeo,  nequire,  nequxvi 
(i%\  nequitum,  to  be  unable,  are  conjugated  like  eo,  but  they  want  the  Im- 
perative and  Gerund,  and  are  rare  except  in  the  Present  tense.* 

DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

297.  Defective  Verbs  want  certain  parts.  The  following  are 
the  most  important :  * 


Coepi,  I  have  begun. 

Perf.  coepi. 
I^up.  coeperam. 
F.  P.  coeperO. 

Perf.  coeperim. 
Plup.  coepissem. 


I.  Pkesent  System  wAis^TiifG. 

Memini,  I  remember.^ 


Odi,  Iliate. 


Indicative. 

memini. 

memineram. 

meminero. 

Subjunctive. 

meminerim. 
meminissem. 

Imperative. 

Sing,  memento. 
Plur.  mementote. 


odi. 

Oderam. 

OderO. 

5derim. 
Odissem. 


1  Compounds  of /iO  are  conjugated  like  the  simple  verb,  but  cibnjit,  de/lt,  and  Injit 
are  defective;  see  297,  III.,  2. 


*  A  Passive  form,  qu'itur,  ne^ultur,  etc.,  occurs  before  a  Passive  Infinitive. 
2  For  many  verbs  which  want  the  Perfect  or  Supine,  or  both,  see  262-/284. 


142 


Ptrf.  coepisse. 

Fat.    coepttirus  esse. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS, 


Infinitive. 

meminisse. 


IMPERSONAL    VERBS, 


6disse. 
Osarus  esse. 


Per/,  coeptus. 
Fut.    coepturus. 


Participle. 

ICsus.i 
osurus. 

1.  With  Passive  Infinitives,  coepl  generally  takes  the  Passive  form  :  coeptm  sum, 
eram,  etc.     Coeptus  is  Passive  in  sense. 

2.  MeminJ  and  odl  are  Present  in  sense;  hence  in  the  Pluperfect  and  Future  Perfect 
they  have  the  sense  of  the  Imperfect  and  Future.  Jiovl,  '  I  know/  Perfect  ofnoscO,  '  to 
learn,'  and  consuevl,  '  1  am  wont,'  Perfect  of  conmesco,  '  to  accustom  one's  self,'  are  also 
Present  in  sense. 

11.  Parts  of  each  System  wais^ting. 

1.  Aio,  I say^  say  yes,'^ 

Indie,  Pres,  aiO,  ais,3  ait;  

Imp.   aiebam,  -ebas,  -6bat;  -ebamus, 

Per/,  ait;  .     

Subj,    Pres.  aias,  aiat;  ^iant. 

Imper.  Pres.  al  {rare). 
Part,    P-es,  aiens. 

2.  Inquam,  I  say. 

Indie.  Pres,  inquam, 

Imp.  

Fvt.   

Per/. 

Imper.  Pres.  inque.     Fut,  inquitO. 

3.  Fari,  to  speah.^ 
Indie.  Pres, 


diunt. 

-Sbatis,    -ebant.* 


mquis, 


inquit ; 
inquiebat ;  * 


inquimus,      inquitis,  inquiunt. 


inquigs,  inquiet; 
inquisti,  inquit ; 


Fut.    fabor,  

Per/,  fat  us  sum,    es, 
Plup.  fatus  eram,  eras, 

Suhj.    Per/,  fatus  sim,     sis, 

Plup.  fatus  essem,  essgs, 

Imper.  Pres.  fare. 

Infin.    P-es.  fari. 

Part.     P-es.  (fans)  fantis. 

Gerund,  Gen.  and  Abl.  fandi,  d5. 


f;atur ; 
fabitur; 
est ; 
erat; 
sit; 
esset ; 


fatl  sumus,    estis,  sunt, 

fat!  eramus,  eratis,  erant. 

fat!  simus,     sitis,  sint. 

fat!  essemua,  essStis,  essent. 


Per/,  fatus. 
Supine^  Abl.  fatu. 


Ger.  fandus. 


»  Osu8  is  Active  in  sense,  hating,  but  is  rare  except  in  compounds:  «bo«m,  percsus. 

2  In  this  verb  a  and  i  do  not  form  a  diphthong;  before  a  vowel  the  i  has  the  sound 
of  y;  a-yo,  a-yunt;  see  10,  4,  8). 

8  The  interrogative  form  aisne  is  often  shortened  into  a\n\ 

*  Aibarru,  albda,  etc.,  occur;  also  inqulbat  for  inquiebat. 

»  Fari  is  used  chiefly  in  poetry.  Compounds  have  some  forms  not  found  In  the 
•imple:  adfa/niur,  adfaminl,  adfabar ;  ifJberis. 


\\ 


143 


III.  Imperatives  and  Isolated  Forms. 

1.  Imperatives. 

havet5;  //i/".  havere,i         hail. 

sal  veto ;  *'*  salvere,  hail. 

tell  me^  give  me, 
begone. 


havcte ; 
salvfcte, 
cette, 


have, 
salve, 
cedo, 
apage, 

9>,  Isolated  Forms. 
Indicative. 
Present. 
coiiiit ;    


dcfit,      def iunt ;    def let ; 
intit,       influnt,     


Subjunctive. 

Future.      Present.        Imperfect.  Infinitive. 

conflat ;    confieret ;  cOnfierl,    to  be  done. 

defiat ;      defieri,      to  be  wanting, 

to  begin. 


Sub.  Imp,  forem,  fores,  foret, forent.        In/,    fore.» 

Ind,  Pres,  ovat,  he  rejoices.  Part,  ovans. 

Ind,  Pres,  quaes5,  quaesumus,*  I  pray. 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

298.  Impersonal  Verbs  correspond  to  the  English  Impersonal 
with  it:  licet,  it  is  lawful;  oportet,  it  behooves.*  They  are  conju- 
gated like  other  verbs,  but  are  used  only  in  the  third  person  singu- 
lar of  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive,  and  in  the  Present  and  Per- 
fect Infinitive. 

299.  The  most  important  Impersonal  Verbs  are— - 


decet, 
libet, 

licet, 
liquet. 


it  becomes.^ 
it  pleases.^ 


it  is  lawful.^ 
it  is  evident.^ 


P'^«''     \t&..t,V' grieves. 

paenitet,  paenituit,       it  causes  rC" 
gret.'f 

]puditumest,F^^^«^^- 


decuit, 
(  libuit,  ) 

\  libitum  est,  j 
i  licuit,  I 

I  licitum  est,  j 
licuit, 
miseret,  miseritum  est,  it  excites  pity ."^ 
oportet,   oportuit,  it  behooves. 

1.  Participles  are  generally  wanting,  but  a  few  occur,  though  with  a  somewhat 
modified  seuse:  (1)  from  libet:  libens,  willing;  (2)  from  licet:  licens,  free;  licitus, 
allowed;  (3)  from  paenitet:  paenitens,  penitent;  paenitendus,  to  be  repented  of;  (4) 
from  PUDET :  pudens,  modest ;  ptuJendus,  shameful 

2.  Gerunds  are  generally  wanting,  but  occur  in  rare  instances:  paenitendum, pri- 
dendd. 


pudet,    iP"4?'* 
'^        '     I  puditu 


*  Also  written  avs,  avete,  etc. 

2  The  Future  salvebis  is  also  used  for  the  Imperative. 

3  Forem  =  essem ;  fore  =futurum  esse;  see  204,  2. 

*  Old  forms  for  quaero  and  quaerimus. 

»  The  subject  is  generally  an  infinitive  or  clause,  but  may  be  a  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting a  thing,  but  not  a  person :  hoc  fieri  oportet,  that  this  should  be  done  Is  necessary. 
«  These  four  occur  in  the  third  person  plural,  but  without  sl personal  subject. 
T  Me  miseret,  I  pity ;  me  paenitet,  I  repent. 
®  Also  the  compound,  pertaedet,  pertaef^am  est,  it  greatly  wearies. 


/-  ji  jLa— 


144 


PARTICLES, 


AD  VERBS. 


145 


300.  Generally  Impersonal  are  several  verbs  which  designate 
the  changes  of  the  weather,  or  the  operations  of  nature  : 

Fulminat,  it  lightens ;  grandinat,  it  hails  ;  lucescU^  it  grows  light ;  pluU, 
it  rains  ;  rorat,  dew  falls  ;  tonat^  it  thunders. 

301.  Many  other  verbs  are  often  used  impersonally  : 

Accidit,  it  happens  ;  appdret,  it  appears  ;  constat,  it  is  evident ;  contingit, 
it  happens ;  deledat,  it  delights  ;  dolet,  it  grieves ;  interest,  it  concerns ;  juvat, 
it  delights  ;  patet,  it  is  plain ;  placet,  it  pleases ;  praestat,  it  is  better ;  refert, 
it  concerns. 

1.  In  the  Passive  V^ice  intransitive  verbs  can  be  used  only  impersonally.  The  par- 
ticiple is  then  neuter : 

Mihi  creditur,  it  is  credited  to  me,  I  am  believed;  Uhl  creditur,  you  are  believed; 
creditum  est,  it  was  believed;  certdtnr,  it  is  contended;  curritur,  there  is  running,  peo' 
pie  run;  pugnatur,  it  is  fought,  they,  we,  etc.,  fight;  mvitur,  we,  you,  they  live. 

2.  The  Passive  Peeipheastic  Conjugation  (234)  is  often  used  impersonally.  The 
participle  is  then  neuter: 

Mihi  scrlbendum  est,  I  must  write ;  tibl  scrlhendum  est,  you  must  write ;  illl  scrl- 
hendum  est,  he  must  write. 


CHAPTER  V. 
PARTICLES. 

302.  The  Latin  has  four  parts  of  speech  sometimes  called 
Particles :  the  Adverb,  the  Preposition,  the  Conjunction,  and  the  In- 
terjection, 

ADVERBS. 

303.  The  Adverb  is  the  part  of  speech  which  is  used  to  qual- 
ify verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs:  celeriter  currere,  to  run 
swiftly ;  tarn  celer,  so  swift ;  tam  celeriter,  so  swiftly. 

304.  In  their  origin,  Adverbs  are  mainly  the  oblique  cases '  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  participles,  and  pronouns. 

I.  AccuSATiVES.—Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Accusatives : 
^  1.  Accusatives  of  Nouns:  partim,  partly ; /ar(w,i  out  of  doors;  diu^  (for 
dium^),  for  a  long  time.     Here  belong  numerous  adverbs  in  tint  and  sim, 
chiefly  from  verbal  nouns  a  no  longer  in  use : »  contemptim,  contemptuously ; 

1  Some,  indeed,  are  the  oblique  cases  of  words  not  otherwise  used  in  Latin,  and  some 
are  formed  by  means  of  case-endings  no  longer  used  in  the  regular  declensions. 

2  Accusative  of  dius  =  dies. 

»  Some  adverbs  in  tim  and  sim  are  from  adjectives :  Hngulatim,  one  by  one.  In 
time  doubtless  tim,  diim,  sim,  and  im  came  to  be  regarded  simply  as  adverbial  suffixes, 
and  were  so  used  in  forming  new  adverbs. 


sensim,  perceptibly,  slowly;  raptim,  hastily;  statim,  steadily;  furtim,  by 
stealth. 

2.  Accusatives  of  Nouns  with  Prepositions  :  ad-modum,  very,  to  the  full 
measure  ;  in-vicem,  in  turn ;  in-cassum,  in  vain ;  ob-iter,  on  the  road,  in  pass- 
ing ;  ob'Viam,  in  the  way,  against ;  post-modum,  after  a  short  time ;  inter- 
diu  i  and  inter-dius,^  during  the  day ;  inter-dum,^  during  the  time,  in  the 
mean  time. 

3.  Accusatives  of  Adjectives: 

1)  Neuters  in  urn,  a,  e,  us,  is:  solum,  only;  multum,  multa,  much;  nim- 
ium,  too  much ;  parum,  little ;  secundum,  secondly ;  ceterum,'^  cetera,  as  to  the 
rest ;  'verum,'^  truly ;  alunde,^  abundantly ;  facile,  easily ;  saepe,^  often ;  plus, 
more;  minus,  less;  saepius,  more  frequently;  raagis,  more,  rather.^ 

2)  Feminines  in  am,  as:  Ufdriam,^  in  two  parts;  multifdriam,  in  many 
parts  ;  clam  =  calam,  secretly  ;  2^CLlam,  openly ;  perperam,  wrongly ;  alias, 
otherwise. 

4.  Accusatives  of  Pronouns:  quam,''  how  much;  tam,'^  so  much;  turn, 
then ;  tu?i-c,  at  that  time ;  nun-c,  now. 

II.  Ablatives.— Many  Adverbs  were  originally  Ablatives : 

1.  Ablatives  of  Nouns  in  6,  e,  is:  ergo,  accordingly ;  s  numerd,  exactly; 
forte,  by  chance  ;  Jure,  rightly ;  sponte,  willingly ;  grdiiU,  or  gratis,  gratui- 
tously ;  forls,  out  of  doors. 

Note.— The  ablative  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  a  preposition  or  by  an  adjective: 
ex-templo,  immediately— lit.,  from  the  moment;  llico  for  in  loco,  on  the  spot;  quot- 
anms,  yearly;  muUi-m(dis,  in  many  ways;  ho-die  {hoc-die),  to-day;  qv^i-re,  where- 
fore, by  which  thing. 

2.  Ablatives  of  Adjectives  and  Participles  in  a.  Feminine,  6,  ^,»  and  I, 
Neuter  :  dextrd  i»  =  dexterd,  on  the  right ;  extrd,^^  on  the  outside ;  Infrd,^^  on 
the  under  side ;  intra,  on  the  inside  \—intrb,  within ;  ultro,  heyond{perpetud, 
continually ;  rdro,  rarely ;  subito,  suddenly ;  auspicdto,  after  taking  the  aus- 

1  Diu  and  dum  are  explained  as  forms  of  dium  =  diem,  and  dius  as  for  die^;  see 
Corssen,  I.,  pp.  232-236;  II.,  45S. 

2  Often  becoming  conjunctions— Ci'^erw?^,  but.  Kon,  from  ne-Unwn,  also  belongs 
here. 

3  From  obsolete  ahundis. 

*  Here  may  be  added  semel,  '  once,'  and  simul,  'at  the  same  time,'  both  for  simile. 
s  Secus,  'otherwise';  tenus,  *as  far  as';-  protinus,  'straightforward';  and  versus, 
'  toward,'  doubtless  belong  here. 

°  Or\g\na\]y  partem  or  viam  may  have  been  used, 

7  Quam,  from  stem  qua,  in  qui,  quae;  tam,  turn,  from  stem  ta,  to,  in  the  final  syl- 
lable  of  iste,  for  is-tu-s,  is-ta;  tun-c  =  tum-ce,  nun-c  =  num-ce,  in  which  num  is  from 
the  stem  no,  seen  also  in  num, '  whether,'  and  also  in  its  original  form,  na,  in  nam,  'for.' 

8  Literally,  by  the  deed.    Compare  Greek  epyov,  epyw. 

»  That  e  is  here  an  ablative  ending  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  it  appears  in  early  Latin 
in  the  form  of  ed,  an  undoubted  ablative  ending. 

10  With  these  feminines,  parte  or  via  may  have  been  originally  used. 

"  Often  becoming  prepositions.  In  fact,  all  prepositions  in  a  are  derived  from  adverbs 
which  were  originally  ablatives  in  dd,  afterward  a. 

1 


e 


,1 


140 


ADVERBS. 


pices;  consulto,  after  deliberating;  sortlto^  by  lot,  i.  e.,  after  casting  lots;— 
docte,  learnedly ;  lihere,  freely  ;  certe,-^  surely ;  recte,  rightly ;  vere,  truly  ;— 
dodissime,  most  skillfully  ;  mdxime,^  especially  ;—brevi,  briefly. 

3.  Ablatives  of  Pronouns  :  ed,  there,  in  that  way  ;  ?id€,  here,  in  this  way ; 
qua,  where,  in  which  way  ;  eddem^  by  the  same  road,  in  the  same  way. 

Note.— Several  pronominal  adverbs  denote  direction  toward  a  point:  eo,  to  that 
place;  hoc,  hue,  to  this  place; 3  Hid,  illo-c,  illu-c,  to  that  place;  isto,  iaio-c,  istu-c,  to 
the  place  where  you  are;  quo,  to  which  place. 

III.  Locatives. — Some  Adverbs  were  originally  Locatives ; 

1.  Locatives  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives  in  i  or  ^ ;  Tiei'l^  yesterday ;  tern" 
pen,  in  time  ;  vesperl,  in  the  evening  ;  peregri,  or  per egr'e,  in  a  foreign  land. 

2.  Locatives  of  Pronouns:  Mc,'^  here ;  illlc*  there  ;  istic,  there  where  you 
are  ;  sic,  in  this  way,  thus  ;  utl,^  nt,  in  which  way  ;  ihi,^  there  ;  uhi,  where. 

Note.— Locative  forms  in  im  also  occur :  olim,  formerly  ;  utrim-que,  on 
both  sides  ;  illim,  illin-c,  from  that  place  ;  Un-c,  from  this  place  ;  often  with 
de  :  utriri-de,  from  both  sides  ;  in-de,  from  that  point,  thence. 

IV.  Adverbs  in  tus  and  ter.— Adverbs  are  also  formed  by  means  of 
the  endings  tus  "^  and  ter : ' 

Fundi-tus,  from  the  foundation  ;  rddici-tus,  from  the  roots,  utterly ;  dlvini- 
tus^  by  divine  appointment,  divinely  ;  forti-ter,  bravely ;  dcri-ter,  sharply ; 
durirter,  harshly  ;  elegan-ter^  elegantly  ;  aman-ter,  lovingly  ;  pi^den-ter,  pru- 
dently. 

Note  1. — The  stem- vowel  before  tus  becomes  i,  and  consonant  stems  as- 
sume i :  fundi-tus,^  rddlc-i-tus.  The  stem-vowel  before  ter  also  becomes 
i :  durU'cr,^  Consonant  stems,  however,  do  not  assume  i,  but  drop  final  t : 
amant-ter,  aman-ter. 

Note  2.— Many  adverbs  are  simply  adverbial  phrases  or  clauses  whose 
parts  have  become  united  in  writing.     In  these  compound  forms  prepositions 

1  As  e  is  an  ablative  ending,  certo  and  certe  are  only  diflferent  forms  of  the  same 
word ;  so  also  recto  and  recte,  vera  and  vcrc,  though  the  two  forms  do  not  always  have 
precisely  the  same  meaning:  vero,  in  truth;  vere,  truly. 

3  This  is  the  regular  ending  in  superlatives. 

3  These  are  sometimes  explained  as  Datives,  but  they  are  probably  Ablatives;  illo, 
lit.,  Jyy  that  tcay  or  road,  finally  came  to  mean  to  that  place,  i.  e.,  to  the  place  to  which 
the  road  leads. 

4  Here  the  Locative  ending  is  I :  hi,  illl,  istl,  si ;  c  for  ce  is  a  demonstrative  ending, 
meaning  here.    Sic  is  the  Locative  of  «a ;  see  313,  foot-note. 

»  Utl  contains  two  stems— t^  or  cti  (seen  in  cut),  and  ta  or  to  (seen  in  te  in  is-te). 

«  In  ibi and  ubl  the  ending  is  bl ;  i  in  ibi  is  the  stem  of  is,  he;  u  in  ubl  is  the  same 

as  in  utl. 

7  Seen  also  in  in-ter,  in  the  midst;  in-tus,  within;  sub-ter  and  sub-tus,  below. 
These  suffixes  are  of  uncertain  origin ;  the  former  appears  to  be  a  case-suffix  with  abla- 
tive meaning,  no  longer  used  in  declension ;  the  latter,  like  ter  in  al-ter,  nos-ter,  and  dex- 
ter, has  lost  its  case-sufflx,  and  may  therefore  represent  either  iero  with  an  ablative  suffix, 
or  terum  with  an  accusative  suffix.    Bee  Corssen,  II.,  p.  299;  Kiihner,  I.,  p.  679. 

^  The  stem-vowel  o  is  changed  to  i. 


V 


AD  VERBS, 


147 


are  especially  common,  and  sometimes  seem  to  be  used  with  cases  with  which 
they  do  not  otherwise  occur:  ant-ed,^  before,  before  that;  inter-ed,  in  the 
mean  time ;  post-ed^  atler ;  ante-hdc,^  before  this ;  quem-ad-modum,  in  what 
manner;  parum-per,  for  a  while  ;  nu-per  =  novum-rjer,  lately  ;  taiitis-per,  for 
so  long  a  time  ;  HdUicet  =  videre  licet,  clearly— lit.,  *  it  is  permitted  to  see' ; 
scilicet  =  scire  licet,  certainly  ;  forsitan  =fors  sit  an,  perhaps. 

305.  Many  Pronominal  Adverbs,  like  the  pronouns  from  which 
they  are  formed  (191),  are  correlatives  of  each  other,  as  will  be  seen 
in  the  following 

Table  op  Correlatives. 


Inteerogative. 


Indefinite. 


Demonstrative. 


I.  Place  in  which. 


Relative. 


ubl,  where  ?  ^ 


aticubl,  somewhere  ; 
2ispiam^  tisquam,  any- 
where ;  nbivls,  where 
you  please. 


hie,  here  ;  3  istic, 
there  ;  illic,  there ; 
ibi,  there. 


uU,  where. 


II.  Plage  to  which. 


quo^  whither  ? 


quorsuin,^  to 
what  place? 
to  what  end  ? 


aliquo,  to  some  place  ; 
quolibet,  quovis,  whith- 
er you  please. 


aliqud-vorsuTTi,^   to 
some  place. 


hUc,  to  this  place; 3 
istuc,  to  that  place  ; 
illuc,  to  that  place; 
eo^  to  that  place  ; 
eddem,  to  the  same 
place. 

horsum,^  to  this 
place. 


quo,  whither. 


quorsum,  to 
which  place  or 
end. 


III.  Place  from  which. 


t^^c?^,  whence? 


I 


alicunde,  from  some 
place ;  undelibet,  from 
any  place. 


hinc,  from  this  place ; 
istinc,  from  that 
place ;  illi?ic,  from 
that  place;  inde, 
from  that  place. 


unde^  whence. 


»  Some  scholars,  regarding  ed  and  hoc  in  these  and,  similar  cases  as  ablatives,  think 
that  all  such  compounds  had  their  origin  at  a  time  when  ante,  pott,  inter,  etc.,  admitted 
that  case;  but  Corssen  treats  ed  and  hue  in  all  such  cases  as  neuters  in  the  accusative 
ptlural.    See  Corssen,  II.,  p.  455;  Bucheler,  p.  32. 

'^  Observe  that  the  question  ubl,  '  where  ? '  may  be  answered  indefnitely  by  alicti- 
hi,  uspiam,  etc.,  or  definitely  by  a  demonstrative  either  alone  or  with  a  relative :  hlc, 
'  here ' ;  hlc,  ubl,  '  here,  where.' 

3  IIlc,  'here,'  'near  me';  istlc,  'there,'  'near  you';  illlc,  'there,'  'near  him';  ibi, 
'there,'  a  weak  demonstrative  and  the  most  common  correlative  of  ubi^  'where.'  See 
distinction  in  pronouns  (191).    A  similar  distinction  exists  in  ?tuc,  istuc,  illuc,  and  eA 

*  For  quO'Vorsum  =  quo-versum, '  whither  turned ' ;  aliquo-vorsum,  hUc-Torsum. 


'  i 


148 


ADVERBS, 


Table  of  Correlatives. — {Continued.) 


PREPOSITIONS, 


Interrogative. 


Indefinite. 


Demonstrative. 


Eelativb. 


IV.  Time. 


quandd^'^'\iQn  ?  \, 


quando,  aliquando,^'^'^^^^^   ^^^  ^   ^'^'^'    quom,   cum. 


unquam,  at  any  time. 


quotienSy  how  ;  dliquotiens^  somewhat 


often  ? 


often. 


then ;  tunc,  at  that 
very  tune ;  ibi,  then. 

totiens,  bo  often. 


qiium,  when. 

qnotiens^  as,  as 
often. 


V.  Way,  Manner,  Degree. 


qua,  by  or  in 
what  way  ? 


vt,  utl,  how  ? 

quam,  how 
much  ? 


allqud,  by  or  in  some  ' 
way :   qudms,  by  any 
way. 

aliqud,  in  some  way, 
etc. 

aliquam,  somewhat. 


lidc,  by  this  way; 
istdc,  by  that  Avay; 
iliac,  by  tliat  way ; 
ed,  by  that  way ;  ed" 
dim,  by  the  same 
way. 

iia,  sic,  so,  thus. 
tarn,  so  much. 


^wa,  by  which 
way. 

ut,    utl,    in 
which  way,  as. 

quam,  as. 


Note  1.— From  Relative  Adverbs  are  formed  General  or  Indefinite  Relatives  by 
appending  -cumqxie  or  by  reduplicating  the  form:  ublcumqiiSy  ubiuh\  wheresoever; 
quocumque,  quoquo,  whithersoever. 

Note  2. — Other  examples  are — 

1)  Place :—a/i&?,  elsewhere;  iMdein,  in  the  same  place;  necubi,  lest  anywhere, 
that  nowhere;  sicubi,  if  anywhere;  alio,  to  another  place;  citro,  to  this  side;  -j'^^^ro 
citroque,  to  and  fro;  utroque^  to  both  places  ;  aliunde^  from  another  place ;  indidem^ 
from  the  same  place;  utrimque,  from  or  on  both  sides;  ictidique,  from  all  sides. 

2)  Time  :—hodie,  to-day  ;  herJ,  yesterday ;  eras,  to-morrow ;  prldic,  the  day  be- 
fore; postridie,  the  day  after; ,;«;??,  already ;  .?a;72  turn,  even  then ;  jamdin.jamdUdum, 
jamprldem,  long  ago;  quondam,  at  a  certain  time ;  olim,  formerly,  hereafter  ;  interhn^ 
intered,  meanwhile;  anted,  pHus,  before;  post,  posted,  afterward;  unquam,  ever; 
niinquam,  never;  semper,  at  all  times. 

3)  Way,  Manner,  Degree  \—adeo,  so  ;  aliter,  otherwise ;  inagis,  more ;  paene,  al- 
most ;  palam,  openly ;  prdrsus,  wholly  ;  rite,  rightly ;  valde,  greatly ;  vlx,  scarcely. 

4)  Cause  :—cur,  why;  ed,  for  this  reason;  ideo,  idcirco,  propter  ed,  on  this  account; 
ergo,  igitur,  itaque,  therefore,  accordingly. 

Note  ^.—Nescio,  with  an  interrogative  adverb,  is  often  equivalent  to  an  indefinite 
adverb :  nescio  quomodo,  I  know  not  in  what  way  =  qubdammodo,  in  some  way : 
nescid  ubi  =  alicubl,  in  someplace;  nescio  U7ide=alicunde,  from  someplace;  se^  also 
191,  note. 

Note  4. — Adverbial  phrases  are  formed  by  combining  m'lrum  or  nimium  with  quan- 
tum: m'lrum  quantum,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  =  wonderfully  much,  wonderfully; 
nimium,  quantum,  exceedingly.  3Ilrum  quam,  sane  quam,  and  valde  quam  have  a 
similar  force :  Jiow  xconderfully,  how  very,  hoio  greatly  =  exceed irigly,  wonderfully. 

Note  5.— For  Interrogative  Particles,  see  311,  8. 

Note  C— For  Negative  Particles,  see  652. 


•« 


V 


149 


egregius, 
egregie. 


magis  egregius, 
magis  egregiG, 


maxime  egregius, 
maxime  egregie, 


306.  Comparison.— Most  adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives, 
and  are  dependent  upon  them  for  their  comparison.  The  com- 
parative is  the  accusative  neuter  singular  of  the  adjective,  and  the 
superlative  changes  tlie  ending  us  of  the  adjective  into  e : ' 

altus,  altior,  altissimus,  lofty 

alte  altius,  altissime,  lofiih. 

prudens,  prudentior,  prudentissimus,  prudmt 

prudenter,  prudentius,  prudentissime,  prudently, 

1.  When  the  adjective  is  compared  with  magh  and  maxime,  the  adverb 
is  compared  in  the  same  way : 

excellent, 
excellenihj. 

2.  When  the  adjective  is  irregular,  the  adverb  has  the  same  irregularity : 
bonus,  melior,  optimus,  good 

bene,  melius,  optime,  well. 

male,  pejus,  pessime,  badly, 

3.  When  the  adjective  is  defective,  the  adverb  is  generally  defective : 

deterior,  deterrimus, 

deterius,  ,  deterrime, 

^^^^^»  ' novissimus, 

^^^^>  novissime, 

4.  A  few  not  derived  from  adjectives  are  compared : 

^^^y  diutius,  diutissime, 
saepe,  saepius,  saepissime, 
satis,  satius,  

^^PC^?  ntiperrime. 


worse, 
worse, 
neio. 
newly. 


for  a  long  time, 
often, 
suj/iciently. 
recently. 

6.  Most  adverbs  not  derived  from  adjectives,  as  also  those  from  ad- 
jectives incapable  of  comparison  (169),  are  not  compared :  hlc,  here ;  nunc, 
now ;  vulgdriter,  commonly. 

6.  Superlatives  in  o  or  um  are  used  in  a  few  adverbs :  primo,  primum, 
potlssimum, 

PREPOSITIONS. 

307.  The  Preposition  is  the  part  of  speech  which  shows  the 
relations  of  objects  to  each  other : 

In  Italia  esse,  to  be  in  Italy  ;  ante  mc,  before  me. 

Note  1.— Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs,  and,  like  other  adverbs  (304),  are  in 
origin  petrified  case-forma.2 


»  See  304,  II.,  2. 

2  Thug  prepositions  in  a  are  in  origin  ablatives :  circa,  extra,  contra,  erga,  extra, 
ivfrd,  etc:  while  those  in  m  are  accusatives:  circum,  coram,  cum,  etc.  These  case- 
forms  passed  into  adverbs  denoting  direction,  situation,  etc. ;  but  they  finally  became 
associated  with  nouns  in  the  accusative  or  ablative  as  auxiliary  to  the  case-ending :  loco 


150 


CONJUNCTIONS, 


Note  2.— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  433-437. 

Note  3. — For  the  Fokm  and  Meaning  of  Prepositions  in  Composition,  see  344,  5. 

308.  Inseparable  Prepositions.*  —  Amhi,  amb,  *  around,' 
^ about';  dis,  dl,  ^asunder';  in,  'not,'  *un-';  por,  Howard,' 
'forth';  re,  red,  'back';  se,  sed,  'aside,'  'apart';  and  ve,  'not,' 
are  called  Inseparable  Prepositions,  because  they  are  used  only  in 
composition. 

Note.— For  the  Form  and  Meaning  of  the  Inseparable  Prepositions  in  Composition, 
see  344,  6. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

309.  Conjunctions  are  mere  connectives.  They  arc  either  Co- 
ordinate or  Subordinate, 

1.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  connect  similar  constructions: 

Labor  voluptasQiJE,^  labor  and  pleasure,  Karthagincm  cepit  Ac '  diruit,  /^ 
took  AND  destroyed  Carthage. 

2.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate  with  principal  con- 
structions : 

Haec  DUM  '  colligunt,  effugit,  while  they  collect  these  things,  he  escapes, 

310.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  comprise — 

1.  Copulative  Conjunctions,  denoting  union  : 

Et,  que,  atque,^  dc^  and ;  etiam,  quoque,  also ;  neque,  ncc,  and  not ;  neque 
— neque,  nee — nee,  neque — nee,  neither — nor. 

2.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions,  denoting  separation  : 

Aut,'^  vel,  Te,  sive  {sen),  or;  aut — aut,  'vel — vel,  either — or;  slve — s^ve,  cith- 
er— or. 

Note. — Here  belong  interrogative  particles  in  double  or  disjunctive  questions :  utrum^ 
num,  or  ne — aw,  whether— or;  an,  or;  annon,  necne,  or  not;  see  353. 

3.  Adversative  Conjunctions,  denoting  opposition  : 

=  FBOM  a  place ;  ex  loco  =  out  of  a  place ;  aliquid  loco  movere^  to  move  anything  trom 
a  place ;  aliquid  ex  loco  movere,  to  move  anything  oitt  of  a  place.  An  adverb  thus 
separated  from  the  verb  and  brought  into  connection  with  a  noun  ceased  to  be  an  adverb 
and  became  a  preposition. 

1  Like  other  prepositions,  these  were  doubtless  oriji^nally  case-forms. 

2  Thus  que  connects  two  nominatives,  dc  two  indicatives  which  are  entirely  coordi- 
nate, took  and  destroyed.,  but  dum  connects  the  subordinate  clause,  haec—coUiguntf 
with  the  principal  clause,  effugit— he  escapes  while  they  collect  these  things. 

3  Copulative  conjunctions  are  ei  =  Greek  ert,  que  =  icat,  and  their  compounds — et-iam 
or  et-jam,  at-que,  quo-que,  ne-que.    Ac  is  a  shortened  form  of  at-qne;  nee,  ofneque. 

*  Disjunctives  are  aut.,  vel,  ve,  with  their  compounds :  vel  =  veils, '  should  you  wish,' 
offering  a  choice,  ve  =  vis,  'you  wish,'  as  in  qul-vls,  'any  you  please';  slve  =  slvls,  'if 
you  wish.' 


CONJUNCTIONS, 


151 


Sed,^  autem,  verum,  vera,  but;  at,  but,  on  the  contrary;  atqui,  rather; 
ceterum,  but  still,  moreover  ;2  tamen,  yet. 

4.  Illative  Conjunctions,  denoting  inference  : 

Ergo,  igitur,  inde,  provide,  itaque,  hence,  therefore  ;  see  also  554,  IV.,  2. 

5.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause  : 
Nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim,  for.  3 

311.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  comprise — 

1.  Temporal  Conjunctions,  denoting  time  : 

Quando,  quom,^  cum,  or  quitm,  when;  ut,  uhi,  as,  when;  cum  {quom  or 
quum)  primum,  ut  prlmicm,  ubl  prlmum,  simul,  simuldc,  simid  dc,  siniul- 
atque,  simul  atqiie,  as  soon  as ;  dum,  donee,  quoad,  quamdiu,^  while,  until,  as 
long  as ;  antequani,  priusquam,  before  ;  postedquam,  after. 

2.  Comparative  Conjunctions,  denoting  comparison  : 

Jit,  utl,  slcut,  slcuti,  as,  so  as ;  ^elut,  just  as ;  praeut,  prout,  according  as, 
in  comparison  with  ;  quam,  as  ;  tanquam,  quasi,  tit  si,  dc  si,  velut  si,  as  if. 

3.  Conditional  Conjunctions,  denoting  condition  : 

Sl,^  if;  si  non,  nisi,  nl,  if  not;  sin,  but  if;  si  quidem,  if  indeed;  si  modo, 
dum  modo,  dummodo,  if  only,  provided. 

4.  Concessive  Conjunctions,  denoting  concession  : 

Quatnquam,  licet,''  cum  {quom,'^  or  quum),  although ;  etsi,  tametsl,  etiamsi, 
even  if;  quamvls,''  quantumvls,  quantumlibet,'"  however  much,  although;  ut, 
grant  that ;  ne,  grant  that  not. 

6.  Final  Conjunctions,  denoting  purpose  or  end  : 

Ut,  uti,  that,  in  order  that ;  ne,  neve  (neu),  that  not ;  qtco,  that ;  quominus,^ 
that  not. 

6.  Consecutive  Conjunctions,  denoting  consequence  or  result  : 
Ut,  so  that ;  ut  non,  quln,^  so  that  not. 

^  Conjunctions,  hke  adverbs,  consist  largely  of  case-forms,  chiefly  from  pronominal 
stems.  Thus,  sed,  verb,  ergo,  etc.,  are  explained  as  ablatives  {sed  from  8uT)\  autem, 
veruin,  ceterum,  quam,  quod,  quom,  or  cum,  etc.,  as  accusatives;  que,  ubl,  utl,  ut,  etc., 
as  locatives. 

2  Lit,  as  to  ffie  rest. 

3  But  most  Causal  Conjunctions  are  subordinate;  see  311,  7. 

*  Quom,  the  original  form  out  of  which  cum  and  quum  were  developed  (23;  26, 
foot-note),  occurs  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus.  Cum  is  the  approved  form  in  classical 
Latin. 

s  See  304,  I.,  1  and  2,  footnotes. 

«  Probably  locative,  possibly  instrumental;  see  page  73,  foot-note  2. 

■^  Licet  is  strictly  a  verb,  meaning  it  is  permitted ;  vis,  in  quam-vls  and  quantum- 
vis,  is  also  a  verb:  quam-vls,  'as  much  as  you  wish';  as  is  also  libet,  'it  pleases,^  in 
quantum-libet,  'as  much  as  is  pleasing.'' 

®  Quominus  =  quo  minus, ' by  which  less';  quln  =  qui  ne,  'by  which  not.* 


152 


FORMATION  OF  WORDS. 


ROOTS.-^STEMS, 


153 


i . 


V  ■■■■•« 


7.  Causal  Conjunctions,  denoting  cause: 

Quia,  quod,  quotilam.i  qnamlo,  bccnuMc,  iiifusmuch  aa ;  cum  {quom,  quuin\ 
since  ;  quamUqaidem,  siquidcm,'^  utpote,  »incc  indeed. 

8.  Intekrooatite  Conjunctions,  denoting  inquiry:' 
Ne,  nOnne,  nuvi,  vtrum,  an,  whether;  an  ndn,  ufcne,  or  not. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

312.  Interjections  are  certain  particles  used  as  expressions  of 
fcclin^^  or  as  men;  marks  of  aildrcss.*     They  may  express— 

1.  AstonisJnncnt:  C>,hein,  ehan,  atat,  bubaf,  vdh,  hi,  ecc€. 
■     2.  Joy ;  id,  H^oe,  evgt,  ?Ja,  d,  papae, 

3.  SoiTOw:  tae,   ei,  lieu,  ih^,  dhi,  ah,  au,prd. 

4.  Disgust:  aha,  phy,  apage, 

5.  Calling:  hcus,  6,  eho,  ehodinn, 

6.  Praise  :  eu,  cage,  ^a,  hdja. 


CHAPTER    VI. 
FORMATION    OF    WORDS. 


SECTION   I. 

ROOTS.-STEMS.-SUFFIXES. 

313.  Words  are  formed  from  stems  riO,  1),  and  stems  from 
roots  or  from  otlier  stems. 

I     J!''''^'  l'"''^i'?  ''"'^"*'  *  position;  18  formed  from  the  stem  ,tatu  by  nd<llnff  the  nom- 


'  Compounded  ot  quom-Jam,  when  now. 
^  Lit.,  if  indeed. 

»  These  arc  8ometitn<-s  elassort  as  Adrerl».  In  «omo  of  their  use.  thev  are  plainly 
Co«)un.t,on'<.  wh,I«  In  other  ea,e8  thoy  ap,,ro«ch  closely  to  the  nature  of  AdJrCl» 
«  matter  of  conrenicnce  they  .nay  be  callcl  Interrogativ»  ParticU,;  ece  351   1     ' 

Some  interjections  seem  to  be  the  simple  and  natural  utterance  of  feili;..  and 

but  to  be  thcn,.,olve,  specimen,  of  the  unorRanlzed  clement,  of  human  speech.  00."  t 
however,  arc  either  Inflected  form^  as  «(,,,  'come.'  apage^  inay,  'bTone'or  nnr 
hted  sentence,  or  clause,:  ,nek.rcu,i.,  n.e,.rcu,e,  Ttc!  =  „„  ]i.rc^'°,%7t  Zt 
Hercules  protect  mc';  mlcatt^r,  'may  Castor  protect  me';  mldiu» Mi^  'ZJZ 
true  God  help  mo ' :  f carter  =  in  Ca.t^r,  •  lo  Castor.'  '^        '         '  ""^ 

4  This  «  is  doubtless  a  remnant  of  an  old  demonrtratlTC,  w,  meaning  tta^  A*,  M«. 


V: 


■.ni.^iwtia/ywwiwl^tpi 


.iiUiUUijiMHiijwiiiMM.i     II     I    I  I    .'.J_■^■,.^n    yi.1   _  I  ^M.  .,..,.  r    .     i    Jiiiiy.i,, 


(11 


'.t'^» 


'.> 


.--'/- 


WoTB  2.— Words  aro  cither  simple  or  comj»oun(l : 

1.  Simpfe,  when  funned  from  ftlnK'le  n>ot«  with  or  without  sufllxes. 

2.  Con  pound,  when  formed  by  the  union  of  two  or  more  root^  or  f terns;  Bco 
840.  UL 

314.  Roots. — Roots  arc  the  primitive  elements  out  of  which' 
all  words  in  our  family  of  languages  have  been  formed.*    They  are 
of  two  kinds: 

I.  Predicative  Roots,  also  called  Verbal  Koots.^  These  designate  or 
name  olgecta,  actions,  or  cjuaIiti<'H :  fM  in  cff-t,  lio  in ;  i  in  i-rr,  to  go;  duo  in 
duc~s  z=  dujr,  leaticr;  dor  in  doc-i/ltt,  ilocilo. 

II.  Dkmonbtrativk  ICoors,"  alHO  called  Thonominal  Kootb.  TIicbc  do  not 
name  objects  or  actions,  but  «inipl y  j>oint  out  the  relation  of  such  object»  or 
actions  to  the  speaker :  me  in  7nei,  of  me ;  iu  in  tut,  of  you ;  i  in  w,  that,  that 
one,  he. 

315.  The  Stems*  of  simple  words  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes  :  Root  Stems,  Primary  Stems,  and  Secondary  Stems, 

316.  Root  Stems  arc  either  identical  with  roots,  or  are  formed 
from  them  without  the  aid  of  suflixes : 

Due-is,  *  of  a  leader,'  root-stem  due  ;  »  en-tis,  *  you  are,*  root-stem  e%  ;  rdg-is, 
*  kings,*  root-stem  reg  /  vdc-is,  *  of  the  voice,'  root-stem  tOc  ;  murmur-is^  *  of 
a  murmur,'  root-stem  murmur. 

317.  Primary  Stems  are  formed  from  roots  by  means  of  suf- 
fixes:* 

*  These  root»  were  probably  all  monosyllabif*,  and  wore  once  used  separately  as  words, 
but  not  as  parts  of  speech.  Thus  ^•j»,  the  root  of  Hum,  e^fc^ '  to  be/  and  t.  the  root  of  e'\ 
Ire,  *to  go,'  were  doubtless  usrd  In  their  original  form,  as  significant  words,  long  before 
the  verbs  themselves  had  an  existence. 

^  Observe  that  from  this  class  of  roots,  whether  called  Predicative  or  Verbal,  may 
be  formed  the  stems,  not  only  of  verbs,  but  also  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and,  {n  fact  of  all 
the  parts  of  si>eech  except  i>ronouns. 

*  The  learner  nhould  note  the  differenee  In  signification  between  Predicafire  and 
Demonstrative  Koo's.  Thus  dux  has  a  definite  meaning,  and  must  always  designate 
one  icho  lead»;  while  the  pronoun  ego  Is  not  the  name  of  any  person  or  thing,  but  may 
be  used  by  any  and  every  person  In  speaking  of  himself. 

*  The  learner  has  already  become  familiar  with  the  use  of  stems  In  the  inflection  iii 
Douns,  adj'»ctlves,  etc. ;  but  stems,  like  roots,  were  jirobably  once  used  as  words. 

*  The  basis  of  every  Inllected  word  Is  u  stem.  Due  Is  therefore  the  stem  of  duc-U, 
but  as  it  can  not  be  derived  from  a  more  primitive  fonn.  It  is  also  a  root.  According  tj 
some  authorities,  rfg,  the  stem  of  rffj-fft^  and  nc,  the  stem  of  rfc-^A,  are  not  roots,  but 
derived  from  more  primitive  fonns— rr//ln  reg-O,  nud  vorAn  voc-n;  acxiordlng  toother 
authorities,  however,  ret/  and  r^i/  aro  only  two  forms  of  the  same  root;  so  also  voc  and 
vdc,  due  and  due.  The  stem  murmur  is  not  a  root,  but  formed  ft"ora  the  root  mut 
by  reduplication.  See  Curtius,  Chron.,  p.  25;  Schleicher,  pp.  841-850;  Meyer,  pp.  ^ 
811-876. 

*  Any  euflix  used  to  form  a  Primary  Stem  ia  called  a  Primary  Suffix;  see  320. 


«Ti5*»,<5 


I 


ri 


^•.**' 
<^' 

/•''■r».. 


^ 


'm 


<'^^':-- 


t^] 


p.    -*■■  "V        I   ♦ 


'  't\  -t'  *■ 


■  *.'■ 


151 


ST£JIS. 


SUFFIXES. 


155 


I 


. 'Vyr"     • 


EOOT. 

ar, 
8ta« 


Suffix. 
vo, 
to, 
tu, 


Stem. 
ar-vo, 

fiuvto, 
«ta-tu, 


Word. 
ar-vu-m,> 
rao-tii-.H,* 
Bta-tu-s, 


Jidd, 
position. 


NoTB. — All  stems  formoil  from  vcrb-stom3  arc  also  generally  classed  as  Primary 
Scenm:^  curd-tor^  'guardian/  'curator/  from  curO^  'to  care  for/  from  cdra^  'care.* 

318.  Seco^'dauy  Stems  arc  formed  from  other  stems  *  by  means 
ot  suffixes :  * 


Stem. 

SCTFIX. 

Secondary  Stem. 

Word. 

clvi,» 

co; 

clvi-co, 

civicus, 

civic. 

vlct(^r,* 

iA; 

victor- i  A, 

victoria, 

victory. 

victor, 

ic; 

vlct6r-ic, 

victrlx,» 

vidrces. 

319.  The  Stems  of  Compound  AVords  arc  formed  by  the  union 
of  two  or  more  stems,  or  of  a  stem  with  a  root  : 

fu-cra,T  fu-cri-s,  you  had  been. 

grand-aevo,8  grand-acvu-s,  of  Qrcat  age, 

Igni-color,®  Igiii-color,  Jire-colored. 

magu-animOj^o  niagii-animu-s,  grcal-eoulcd. 

Note  1.— Words  are  formed  from  Stems  by  means  of  the  Suffixes  of  Inflection;  tco 
46  and  202,  note  1. 

Note  2.— A  singlo  root  often  gives  rise  to  a  largo  class  of  forms.  Thus,  from  the  root 
stOy  'to  stand/  are  derived  — 

1.  The  numerous  forms  which  make  up  tho  conjugation  of  the  verb  «/3,  ttdre^  6(ctl^ 
ttt^Uuw,  to  stand. 

2.  Ail  the  forms  of  the  verb  sistf),  sUterCy  tifitl^  staium,  *to  place.' 

3.  Numerous  other  forms.  Thus  {I),  f<ta-bi:is,  'stable/  'firm/  from  which  are  de- 
rived ^tahilio,  'to  make  firm  ';  utabilit'ts,  'firmneSvV  and  tsiali'iUr,  '  firmly';  (2)  atabu' 
luin^  'ft  standing:  place/  'stible/  from  which  arc  derived  ftabulo^  and  sfabnlor^  'to  have 
a  standing  place*;  (3)  «A2m^7?,  'something  standing/  'w.'^rp  in  an  upright  loom'  ;  (4) 
etatim^  Mn  standing/  'at  once';  (5)  «A//i'1,  'standing';  (G)  statlriut^  ' stationar}' ' ;  (7) 
sUitor,  *a  stayer' ;  and  (S)  sfntuft,  'position.'  from  which  is  derived  tiatiU)^  'to  place/ 
Which  in  turn  becomes  tho  basis  of  st^itua^  'a  statue/  and  etati'ra^  'stature.' 

*  Ar-TO-m  weakened  to  armim^  fnc-toH  to /actus;  see  22,  2. 

^  This  is  a  matter  of  convenience,  as  new  stems,  or  words,  are  formed  from  verb-stems 
In  the  same  manner  as  from  roots;  see  Schleicher,  p.  347. 

3  Except  verb-stems.  Ilemember  that  stems  formed  from  Tcrb-stcms  arc  treated  at 
Primary;  see  317,  note. 

*  Any  suffix  used  to  form  a  Sccondari/  stem  Is  called  a  Secondary  suffix,  but  man.r 
sufiixcs  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary.  Thus  co  In  clrictis  is  Secondary,  as  It 
id  added  to  a  stem ;  but  in  Iocuk,  'place/  it  is  Primary,  as  it  is  added  to  a  root. 

*  Ciri  Is  the  stem  ot clri^,  citizen  ;  victor  otvlctor^  conqueror. 

*  For  victdrtTy  by  contraction. 

'''  Compounded  of  root/z/  with  stem  er2  from  the  root  ca;  see  203,  note  2,  and  243. 

*  For  (/randi-acvo. 

»  Compounded  of  igni,  tho  stem  of  V/nitt, '  fire,'  and  of  co'dr^  the  stem  of  cohr^ '  color.» 
»0  Compounded  of  m^lano,  tho  stem  of  rndgnuA^  'great/  and  of  animo^  the  stem  of 
cnimi^, 'soul' ;  m'i(7m?-animo  becoming  mJfirminimo. 


:C><3^^^:S 


^^r 


^^•^^ 


"T. 


■■'  --'^^y 


1 1"  ■ 


>> 


n 


;-'! 


I 


320.  Suffixes. — Most  suffixes*  appear  to  have  been  formed  ' 
from  a  comparatively  small  number  of  primitive  elements  called 


Prim  Ally  »Suffixes. 


L 

11.« 

Examples. 

a, 

« 

V  o>  e,  e,  i, 
6,u, 

&  and  o  in  nouns  and  adjectives,  6  in  nouns, 
and  e,  i,  o,  and  u  in  verbs:  scrtb-a,  writer; 
fv^-a^  flight;  ju(j'0^  Nom.  Jr/g-u-m^*  yoke; 
Jid-r,  Noni.  Jid-T'-a^  fnith ;  rrg-e^^  rule  thou ; 
rrtj-i^ff  you  rule ;  rrg-o^  I  rule  ;  reg-u-?tf^  they 
rule. 

1, 

i. 

in  a  few  nouns:  <ir-f,  Nom.  av-i-$^  bird;  aro-i^ 
Nom.  arc-i-^,  arcs,*  arx,  citadel. 

1 

U,                    u,              in  nouns: 7  ac-t/,  Nom.  ac-u-s^  needle. 

an, 

on,  5n,  en, 
in. 

denoting  either  the  act  or  tho  aoent;  asperg- 
on,  Nom.  af^pn-gS^  (d.  inin),  sprinkling;  gcr^ 
dn,  qerb^  (G.  dnis)^  a  carrier;  pect-en  (G.  tnw), 
a  comb. 

■  ant,« 

ent,  imt, 

in  present  participles :  »o  audicnt-f,^^  audien^^ 
hearing ;  ab-es-ents,  ab-sdns,  absent ;  atndr- 
ent-g,  amdnSy  loving. 

•  Most  sufl^xes  appear  to  be  of  pronominal  origin,  \.  e.,  from  pronominal  stems  or 
roots,  but,  according  to  Bopp,  Corssen,  and  other»,  a  few  may  be  of  verbal  origin.  Thus 
in  several  suffixes  beginning  with  ^— seen  in  ler^  bilin^  buluin,  etc.— Corssen  recognizes 
the  root  bKar  —  fer  iu/er-G^  '  tf>  bear ' ;  in  some  beginning  \\1th  ^seen  in  ter,  tor^  ///riiJi, 
etc.— the  root  tor,  'to  accomplish' ;  in  some  beginning  with  c— seen  In  c^r,  cnhiv},  crvm^ 
etc. — the  root  Xar  =  cer^  ere  In  cre-f)^  '  to  make."  For  a  discussion  of  tho  subject,  see 
Bopp,  III.,  pp.  IS(>-201;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  5€7;  II.,  pp.  40,  GS;  Schleicher,  p.  44-3. 

'  Column  I.  shows  the  suffix  in  its  ftvppofed  original  form,  while  column  II.  showj 
the  various  forms  which  tho  suffix  has  assumed  in  Latin. 

>  Originally  long  in  Latin  in  feminine  forms ;  see  21,  2, 1). 

<  Observe  that  these  suffixes  form  (if(vijf,  not  copert.  Sometimes  the  Nominative  Sing- 
alar  is  in  form  identical  with  the  stem  ;  but  in  most  cases,  the  Nominative  Is  fornjed 
from  tho  stem  by  adding  tho  Nominative  suffix,  as  ft  in  Jidi-s^  m  in  jugu-m  for  Ju(/t}-fn 
(<?  weakened  to  w,  22,  2). 

•  Observe  that  tho  Present  stem  takes  the  several  forms,  reg-e,  reg-i,  reg-0,  reg-u; 
Init  see  j»ngo  118,  foot  note  Tt. 

•  Often  tlius  dropped;  sometimes  changed  to  ^,  ?. :  marf^  mare,  sea;  caedl,  caede, 
cacde-s^  slaughter. 

T  Also  in  adjectives,  in  union  with  i  making  ui:  ten-ui-a,  thin. 

•  3"^  dropped ;  sec  30,  5, 8). 

»  This  is  tho  base  of  several  com]>ound  suffixes:  evt  o,  ent-iS,  <n^io— Nom.  enU 
um^  ent-ia,  and  ent-ivm ;  /fu-ent-um,  stream ;  ttapi-eniia^  wisdom ;  til-ent-ium,  sllonco. 
H  Also  in  a  few  adjectives  and  nouns :/r«gu-«a^j,/r«^u^7i^  frequent;  pari-ent^ 
parina.    Here  a  is  the  Nominative  ending. 


■'4,  >  ■  - 


-.  •.?■■. 


t* 


r.. 


156 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


Primary  Suffixes. — {Continued.) 


I. 

II. 

Examples. 

as, 

OS,   us,   es,^ 
es,  or,  ur, 

gen-08^  gen-us^'^  birth;  corp-us,'^  body;  nub-es^ 
cloud ;  rdh-u7\^  strength ;  sop-or  (31,  2),  sleep. 

1 

ia,^  io,  ie, 

ia*  and  io  in  adjectives ;  ie  in  nouns :  ex-im-id, 
€X-im-io,  Nora,  ex-im-iu-s,  ex-im-ta,  ex-iin- 
iu-m^  select ;  fac-ie^  Nom.  fac-ic-Sy  appear- 
ance. 

ja«  =  y«, 

e,  i,  id,  iu, 

in  verbs:  cap-e^  take  thou;  cap-e-re^  to  take; 
cap-is^  you  take ;  cap-i-mus,  we  take ;  caj)- 
id,  I  take  ;  cap-iu-nt,  they  take. 

jans'^  = 

yanSj 

ios,  i6r,  ius, 
j^r,  or, 

in  comparatives :  mag-ids,  mag-id?',  md-jor,  Nom. 
md-jor  (21,  2),  greater;  min-dr,  min-or  (21, 
2),  smaller;  see  162,  165. 

ka, 

ca,  CO, 

rare  :  ^  pau-cd,  pau-co,  pau-cus,  a,  urn,,  small ; 
lo-co,  locus,  place. 

la, 

la,  lo,  li,      1  see  ra. 

ma,^ 

mS,  mo, 

for-nia,  form ;  prl-mo.^  prl-mns,  first ;  sup-mo, 
sum-mo  (34,  3),  sum-mus,  highest;  al-wo, 
al-mus,  cherishing. 

1  This  suffix  seems  to  he  used  in  forming  the  Katin  Infinitive,  in  origin  the  Dative  of 
a  verbal  noun :  reg-es-e,  reg-ere  (31, 1),  'to  rule'— lit, /or  ruling;  e  is  the  Dative  end- 
ing (67,  note);  see  Schleicher,  p.  472.    See  also  page  81,  foot-note  2. 

a  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2);  in  early  Latin  o,  in  classical  Latin  u  in  Nominative 
Singular,  e  in  other  cases.  We  thus  have  in  early  Latin  os  in  gen-os,  and  in  classical 
Latin  its  in  gen-ns,  and  ^,9  changed  to  er  (31, 1)  in  gen-er-is,  gen-er-i,  etc.  Words  of 
this  class  take  no  Nominative  ending. 

3  With  variable  vowel— o,  u.  We  thus  have  corp-us,  corp-or-is,  with  8  changed  to 
r  (31,  1).    S  final  is  also  changed  to  r  in  rdhur;  see  31,  2. 

*  Doubtless  a  pronominal  stem.  It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix  (page  154,  foot- 
note 4) :  paier-io,  patr-io,  Nom.  patr-ius,  paternal;  T'icU)r-ia,  victory;  luxur-ia,  lux- 
tir-ie/i,  luxury;  see  325. 

6  Originally  long  in  Latin,  see  21,  2, 1). 

*  Probably  the  verbal  root^'or,  identical  with  i  in  'ire,  to  go.  So  explained  by  Curtius, 
Yerbum,  I.,  pp.  290-295.  Ja  was  also  used  as  a  secondary  suffix,  appended  to  the  stems 
of  nouns  and  adjectives,  in  forming  denominative  verbs;  see  335,  foot-note. 

'  This  suffix  is  generally  secondary:  alt-ior,  alt-ius,  higher;  sapient-ior,  wiser; 
see  162. 

^  It  seems  to  appear  without  its  final  vowel  in  some  nouns  in  x :  ape-c-s,  apex,  point, 
top.  It  is  common  as  a  secondary  suffix:  clvi-co,  clvi-cus,  civic  (330);  and  is  also 
used  in  compound  suffixes,  as  cu-lo,  ci-no,  ti-co :  flds-cti-lus,  a  small  flower;  vdti-ci-mLS, 
prophetic.    See  Schleicher,  p.  478;  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  205,  306,  307. 

*  This  is  also  an  element  in  ti-md,  ti-mo,  si-md,  si-mo,  is-si-md,  is-si-mo :  op-ti- 
mu8,  «,  um,  best;  alt-is- si-mus,  highest. 


PRIMARY  SUFFIXES. 


157 


Pkimary  Suffixes. — ( Continued.) 


1  This  is  an  element  in  mcn-to,  mon-id.  and  mon-io:  nfitri-men-tmn,  nutriment; 
queri-Tiun-ia,  complaint;  tesii-ni'.n-ium  (secondary  suffix),  testimony. 

'  With  variable  vowel  (57,  2).  The  suffix  mart  is  weakened  to  men  in  the  Nomina- 
tive Singular,  and  to  min  in  the  other  cases. 

3  For  gnd-7nen,  •■  name,-  the  means  by  which  one  is  know^n. 

*  JV  is  dropped ;  see  36,  5,  3). 

^  Nearly  equivalent  to  ta.    In  some  languages  it  forms  passive  participles  like  ta. 

^  Often  secondary:  paier-no, pater-nxis,  paternal;  sometimes  preceded  by  ^7,  f,  or  e: 
font-d-nus,  of  a  fountain;  ca7i-l-nus,  canine;  ali-e-nus,  belonging  to  another;  see  327, 
329,  and  330. 

"^  As  ta  and  7ia  are  closely  related  in  meaning  and  use,  so  are  ii  and  ni.  They  are 
sometimes  united  in  the  same  suffix :  ti-o-ni  (326). 

®  Jia  and  la  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix.  In  Latin  and  Greek  this 
suffix  often  forms  verbal  adjectives  which  sometimes  pass  into  nouns  :  gnd-rus,  'know- 
ing,^ from  gnd  in  no-sco,  '  to  know' ;  5u>-pov,  'gift,'  '  something  given,'  from  So  in  5t5a>/oit, 
'  to  give.' 

»  In  the  form  of  ti  it  is  the  first  element  in  ti-mus,  a,  um :  op-ti-mus,  best ;  and  the 
second  element  in  is-si-miis,  a,  nm :  alt-is-si-mus,  highest.  In  the  form  of  td,  it  is  the 
first  element  in  td-ti,  shortened  to  tat :  clvi-tds  =  cwi-tdt-s,  state. 

^^  Often  becoming  adjectives  or  nouns:  al-to,  al-tus^  high  ;  nd-tus,  son. 


158 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


NOUNS. 


159 


Primary  Suffixes. — {Continued.) 


U. 


Examples. 


tar, 


ter,  t6r,      i  geo  tra. 


w 


ti,'  si, 


in  verbal  nouns :  ves-ti^  ves-Hs^  gannent ;  met-ti^ 
met-tis^  messis  (35,  3),  reaping,  harvest. 


tu. 


ta,^ 


in  verbal  nouns,  including  supines :  fta-tu,  sta- 
tus^ standing;  i-tii^  i-tvs,  going;  dic-tu  (su- 
pine), in  telling,  to  tell. 


tar,^  tra,4    ter,  tor,  tro, 


ter  5  and  tor  denoting  agency  ;  tro,  means  : 
pa-ter^  father;  md-ter^  mother;  vic-tor,  con- 
queror ;  audi-tor^  hearer ;  ard-trum^  plough. 


va. 


vo,  uo, 


in  nouns  and  adjectives :  ar-ro, a;*- i?/;??,  ploughed 
field;  'vac-uo^  vac-uus,  empty. 


SECTION    II. 

DERIVATION     OF    WORDS. 
FORMATION    OF    KOUJiTS    BY    SUFFIXES. 

1.  From  the  Stems  of  Other  Nouns. 

321.  Diminutives  generally  end  in — 

lus,  la,  lum;  ulus,  ula,  ulum;  cuius,  cula,  culum:' 


1  Ti  is  the  first  clement  in  ii-u,  ti-o,  H-e,  ti-o-ni,  ti-on  (i  dropped) :  justi-tia,  jas- 
tico;  eervi-tlo,  servi-tium,  service;  dilri-Ue,  dilri-tiea,  hardness;  sta-iion^  sta-tid  (n 
dropped),  station. 

2  /often  disappears:  meTi-H,  wen-tis^  mcn-ts,  meiis  (36,  2),  mind. 

3  Tu  is  the  first  element  in  the  suffixes,  tu-a,  tu-o;  til-ii,  tilt,  and  tu-don  :  sia-tiia, 
statue;  mor-imis,  dead;  servi-tNii,  scrvi-tOt  {i-jem'i-tilts\  8C7'vi-tfi.%  servitude;  turpi' 
tndon.,  turpi-tudh  (n  dropped),  turpitude. 

*  Perhaps  of  verbal  orinrin  (320,  foot-note  1).  This  suffix  seems  to  be  the  basis  of 
several  compound  suffixes :  trr-id,  tor-io,  turd,  turo,  irlc  for  idr-l-c,  etc.;  see  examples, 
324,  326,  330. 

s  Ter  is  used  in  names  denoting: /«w 2*/^  relationsJiip^  orl^nally  agency  : /j^-^tr, 
lit,  protector,  from  the  root  pa,  to  protect. 

«  For  the  convenience  of  the  learner  the  suffixes  are  given  in  the  Nominative  form, 
i.  e.,  with  the  Nominative  ending  and  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Observe  that  the  stem 
suffix  in  lu-8  and  lu-m  is  lo.  The  endings,  ulu8,  ula,  idum,  were  developed  irregularly 
after  the  analogy  of  ^l-lu8,  u-Ia,  u-lum  in  such  words  as  hortu-lus,  'virgu-Jus,  oppidu- 
lum,  where  the  u  is  the  modified  stem-vowel.  Thus  the  u  in  reff-u-lu8  and  capit-n-lum 
is  an  irregularity  introduced  from  the  Diminutives  of  a  and  o  stems.  Lus,  la,  lum  are 
formed  from  the  suffix  la  or  ra,  often  used  in  forming  Primary  Stems  (330).  Cuius, 
cula,  culum  are  compound  suffixes  in  which  the  first  part,  cu,  is  formed  from  the  suffix, 
originally  ka,  modified  in  Latin  to co,  cm,  seen  in  lo-co-8,  locus,  place ;  see  320,  Aa,  foot-note. 


i 


f 


%^ 


friio-lus, 

filio-la, 

atrio-lum, 

alveo-lus, 

hortu-lus, 

virgu-la, 

oppidu-lura, 

reg-ulus, 

capit-ulum, 

flOs-culus, 

parti-cula, 

munus-culum, 


a  Utile  son^ 
a  little  daughter, 
a  small  hall, 
a  small  cavity, 
a  small  garden, 
a  S7nall  branch, 
a  small  ioivn, 
a  petty  king, 
a  small  head, 
a  small  flower, 
a  small  part, 
a  small  present, 


from 

« 

(i 
(i 
(i 

(( 
a 


filius, 

filia, 

atrium, 

alveus, 

hortus, 

virga, 

oppidum, 

rex, 

caput, 

flOs, 

pars, 

munus, 


son, 

daughter, 

hall, 

cavity, 

garden, 

branch, 

town, 

king, 

head, 

flower, 

part, 

present. 


1.  IjUS,  la,  lum,  are  appended  to  a  and  o  stems ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum,  to 
Dental  and  Guttural  stems ;  cuius,  cula,  culum,  to  e,  i,  and  u  stems,  and 
to  Liquid  and  s  stems  ;  see  examples. 

2.  Before  lus,  la,  lum,  the  stem-vowels  a  and  o  take  the  form  of  o 
after  e  or  i,  and  the  form  of  u  in  other  situations :  fllio-lus,  filio-la  for 
fllid-la,  hortu-lus  for  horto4us. 

3.  Before  cuius,  cula,  culum,  stems  in  u  change  u  into  i,  and  stems 
in  on  change  o  into  u:  vcrsi-culus,  *a  little  verse,'  from  verms;  homun- 
cuius,  *  a  small  man,'  from  homd.  Like  nouns  in  on,  a  few  other  words 
form  diminutives  in  un-culus,  un-cula :  av-unculus,  *  maternal  uncle,'  from 
avus,  *  grandfather.'  * 

4.  EMus,  el-la,  el-lum,  il-lus,  H-la,  U-lum,2  are  used  when  the  stem 
of  the  primitive  ends  in  a  or  o,  preceded  by  1,  n,  or  r :  ocellus,^  '  small 
eye,'  from  oculus  ;  fabcUa,  '  short  fable,'  from  fahula  ;  vlUum,^  *  a  small 
wine,'  from  vinum. 

NoTE.--The  endings  leus  and  ciO  occur:  ecu-lens,^  *a  small  horse,'  from  equus; 
homun-cio,  'a  small  man,'  from  homO. 

322.  Patronymics,  or  names  of  Descent,  generally  end  in— 

des,  stem-suffix  da,  masculine  ;  s  for  ds,  stem-suffix  d,  feminine, 

Tantali-des,         son  of  Tantalus ;  Tantali-s,         daughter  of  Tantalus.^ 

Thesi-des,  son  of  Theseus ;  Thesei-s,  daughter  of  TJiesms, 

Thestia-des,        son  of  Thestius ;  Thestia-s,         daughter  of  Thestius. 

Note.— The  suffix  ne,  preceded  by  l  or  o,  is  sometimes  used  in  forming  feminine  Pat- 
ron^-mics:  Neptiini-ne,  daughter  of  Neptune;  AcHsio-nc,  daughter  of  Acrisius. 

1  Nubl'Cula,  pUhe-cula,  and  'culpe-cula  are  formed  as  if  from  e-stems. 

2  xte  syllables  el  and  il  do  not  belong  to  the  ending,  but  are  produced  by  a  slight  change 
in  the  stem.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  eov  i\s  therefore  determined  by  the  primitive  : 
thus,  oculus,  oculu-lus  =  ocul-lu8  =  occl-lus;  vlnum,  vlnu-lum  =  vln-lum  =  vU-lum, 

3  Also  written  equuleus,  but  eculem  is  the  approved  form. 

*  The  vowel  preceding  the  suffix  is  usually  i,  as  in  Tantali-des,  Tantali-s,  modified 
from  the  stem-vowel  o.  Primitives  in  ei^s  generally  change  eu  to  i  or  ei,  as  in  Thesi- 
des,  Thesei-s;  and  primitives  in  «m.9  change  stem-vowel  o  to  «,'as  in  Thestia-des^ 
Other  nouns  sometimes  form  Patronymics  after  the  analogy  of  nouns  in  ius :  LaettiadU, 
son  of  Laertes.    Aeneas  has  Aeneades,  masculine,  and  Aeneis,  feminine. 


160 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS, 


NOUNS, 


161 


323.  Designations  of  Place  are  often  formed  with  the  endings 


columb-arium, 
querc-etum, ' 
salic-tum, 
ov-Ile, 


etum,  turn, 


from 

a 
u 


lie  J 

coJumba, 
qiierciis, 


salix 
ovis, 


dove, 
oak. 
willow, 
sheep. 


anum, 

a  dovecot ^'^ 
a  forest  of  oakSy 
a  thicket  of  ivilhwSy 
a  shecpfoldy 

1.  Arium  designates  the  place  where  anything  is  kept,  a  receptacle: 
aerarium,  *  treasury/  from  acs,  money. 

2.  Etum,  turn,  used  with  names  of  trees  and  plants,  designate  the  place 
wherethey  flourish :  ollveium,  '  an  olive-grove,'  from  ohva,  '  olive-tree.' 

3.  He,  used  with  names  of  animals,  designates  their  stall  or  fold  : 
bovile,  '  stall  for  cattle,'  from  605,  stem  bov. 

4.  Other  Examples  arc — 

Aestu-drium,  ^ tidal  bay,'  from  aestvs,  Hide' ;  avi-driumy  'aviary,'  from  avis, 
*bird';    dOn-dnvm,  'place  for  offerings,'  from  domwi,  *gift';  pom-drium 
'  orchard,'  from  pmiiiim,  '  fruit ' ;  aescul-Hum,  '  forest  of  oaks,'  from  aesculus 
*oak';  pln-Uum,  'pine-forest,'  from  plnus,  'pine';   ros-Uum,  'rose-bed' 
from  rosa,  '  rose ' ;  vln-eium,  '  vineyard,'  from  vmnm,  '  vine ' ;  virguUum 
'  a  thicket,'  from  virrjula,  '  bush ' ;  capr-ile,  '  goat-stall,'  from  caper,  '  goat.' 

324.  Derivatives  are  also  formed  with  several  other  endino-s 
especially  with —  ^"' 

arius,  16,  ium,  itium,  ina,  imonium,  itas,  tus,  atus.'* 


statu-arius, 
mul-io, 
sacerdot-ium, 
serv-itium, 


reg-ina. 


patr-imonium, 
cTv-itas, 
vir-tus, 
consul-atus, 


a  statuary, 

muleteer, 

priesthood, 

servitude, 

queen, 

patrijnony, 

citizenship, 

virtue, 

consulship, 


from 
it 

u 

u 

(( 

« 


statua, 

mulus, 

sacerdos, 

servus, 

rex, 

pater, 

cTvis, 

vir, 

consul. 


statue. 

mule. 

priest, 

slave, 

king. 

father, 

citize7i. 

mem, 

consul. 


1.  Arius  and  16  generally  designate  persons  by  their  occupations. 

2.  Ium  and  Itium  denote  office,  cOxNdition,  or  collection  :  servitiitm, 
servitude,  sometimes  a  collection  of  servants. 

i  AHum  and  lie  aro  the  endings  of  neuter  adjectives  used  substantively  (330)      Tho 
vowels  a  and  I  were  probably  developed  out  of  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive  but  thev 
were  afterward  treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix.    For  an  explanation  of  such  vowels'  see  330 
foot-note.    Many  derivative  endings  were  thus  formed  originally  by  the  union  of  certain 
suffixes  with  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive;  accordingly,  when  added  to  vowel  stem<» 
they  generally  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel :  columb-d,  columb-arium :  auerc-o 
querc-etum.  '   ^  ' 

•■«  Arius  is  identical  in  origin  with  the  adjective  ending  arius  (330),  and  atus  with 
atus  m  participles.     In  each  the  initial  a  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive 
Ina  IS  the  same  formation  as  the  adjective  ending  Inus  (330).    On  i-tium,  i-manium 
I'tas,  and  tus,  see  ti,  ta,  tu,  man,  mon,  with  foot-notes,  330;  remember  that  the  initial 
t  was  developed  from  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive. 


3.  Ina  and  imonium  are  used  with  some  variety  of  signification ;  see 
examples  under  V  below. 

4.  Itas  and  tus  designate  some  characteristic  or  condition  :  hered-i- 
tas,  '  heirship,'  from  heres,  *heir ' ;  virtus,  ^manliness,'  '  virtue,'  from  vir, 

5.  Atus   denotes  rank,   office,  collection:   consulaius,  'consulship,' 
from  consul ;  senatus,  '  senate,'  '  collection  of  old  men,'  from  seriex, 

6.  For  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns,  see  331,  note  1. 

Note.— Tho  endings  ago,  lg6,  and  ligo^  also  occur:  'vir-ugo,  'heroic  maiden,"*  from 
vir,  '  hero ' ;  ferr-ugo,  '  iron-rust,'  from  ferrum,  '  iron.' 

7.  Other  Examples  are — 

Libr-drius, '  transcriber  of  books,'  from  liher,  '  book' ;  llgn-drius,  *  joiner,' 
from  lignum,  ^  wood' ;  quadrlg-drius,  driver  of  a  four-horse  chariot,'  from 
quadriga, '  four-horse  chariot' ;  arhitr-ium, '  decision,'  from  arbiter,  *  arbiter' ; 
conjug-ium,  ^wedlock,'  from  conjunx'^^o\x^Q^ -,  magis-ter-ium,' -presidency} 
from  rnagis-ter,  'president';  6s-tium,  'door,'  from  os,  *  mouth  J^  gall-lna, 
*hen,'  from  gallus,  '  cock' ;  doctr-lna,  for  doctur-ina,  '  doctrine,'  irom  doctor, 
'learned  man,'  'doctor';  mdtr-imdnium,  'matrimony,'  from  mdter,  'moth- 
er ' ;  aedll-itds,  '  office  of  edile,'  from  aedllis,  '  edile ' ;  ^anctor-itds,  '  authority,' 
from  auetor,  '  founder,'  '  author' ;  senec-tus,  '  old  age,'  from  senex,  '  old  man ' ; 
tribun-dtus,^  '  office  of  tribune,'  from  tribunus,  '  tribune.' 

II.  Nouns  from  Adjectives. 

325.  From  Adjectives  are  formed  various  Abstract  Nouns 
with  the  endings — 

ia,  itia,  ta,  tas,  itas,  tus,  ed6,  itiidd,  imonia.^ 


dlligent-ia, 

superb-ia, 

amic-itia, 

juven-ta, 

liber-tas, 

bon-itas, 

pi-etas,* 

juven-tus, 

dulc-edo, 

sol-itudo, 

acr-imonia, 


diligence, 

haughtiness, 

friendship, 

youth, 

freedom, 

goodness, 

piety, 

youth, 

sweetness, 

solitude, 

sharpness, 


from 


u 
u 
{( 
(t 


dlligens, 

superbus, 

amicus, 

juvenis, 

liber, 

bonus, 

pius, 

juvenis, 

dulcis, 

solus, 

acer, 


diligent, 

haughty. 

friendly. 

young. 

free. 

good, 

pious. 

young, 

sweet, 

alone. 

sharp. 


»  These  endings  were  formed,  according  to  Corssen,  by  appending  the  suffix  an  to 
ag,  the  root  of  ago,  to  put  in  motion,  make,  do;  see  Corssen,  I.,  p.  577. 

2  As  if  formed  from  a  verb,  tribuno,  are,  like  equit-utus,  'cavalry,'  from  equito,  are^ 
*to  ride,'  from  eques,  'a  horseman.' 

3  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  final  vowel. 
Originally  the  initial  i  in  i-tia,  i-tas,  i-tudo,  and  i-monia  formed  no  part  of  the  suffix, 
but  represented  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive.  On  ia,  tia,  and  ta,  see  ja,  ti,  and  ta, 
320;  on  i-tas  and  tus,  see  page  IGO,  foot-note  2;  on  i-tudb  and  i-monia,  see  tu  and 
mai\  330.    The  origin  of  e-dS,  e-din  is  obscure. 

4  For  pi'itds  by  dissimilation  (26). 


162 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS, 


Note  1.— Instead  of  ia  and  itia,  ies  and  Hies  occur:  pauper,  pauper-ics,  poverty; 
durvs,  dur-itia  or  dur-itiea^  hardness. 

Note  2.— Before  ids  the  stem  of  the  adjective  is  sometimes  slightly  changed :  facilis, 
facuUda,  faculty ;  difficilis,  difficultus,  difficulty ;  poiens,  potestds,  power. 

Note  3.— A  few  adjectives  form  abstracts  with  both  itda  and  itudd  :  jirmua,  firm- 
itds,  firmitudb,  firmness.  Polysyllabic  adjectives  in  tm  often  suffer  contraction  before 
these  endings:  Jioneatda  for  Jionest-itda^  'honesty,'  from  Jionestua;  sdllicitudo,  for  sol- 
licit-itudd,  'solicitude,'  from  soUicitus. 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Auddc-ia^  *  boldness,'  from  ariddx^  *bold' ;  just-itia^  'justice,'  from  jUsiuSy 
*just';  saev'itia,  'cruelty,'  from  saevus^  'cruel';  scnec-ta^  'old  age,'  from 
senex^  '  old ' ;  aequdl-itds^  '  equality,'  from  aequdlis^  '  equal ' ;  cdr-itds^  '  dear- 
ness,'  from  cdrus^  'dear';  anxi-etds^  'anxiety,'  from  a?ixius,  'anxious';  alt- 
itudo,  'height,'  fromaUvs,  ^ high^ ;  /ort-itudoj  'bravery,'  from /orlis,  'brave'; 
mdgn-itudo^  '  greatness,'  from  mdgniis,  '  great.' 

III.  Nouns  from  Verbs  and  from  Roots. 

326.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed  nu- 
merous nouns  with  the  suffixes — ^ 

ter,  tor,2  trix,  trum,  tura,  tus,  tio,  16.^ 
fa(hc7\ 


pa-ter, 

fra-ter, 

am  a -tor, 

audi-tor, 

defen-sor, 

vena-tor, 

v6na-trTx, 

guberna-trix, 

ara-trum, 

rOs-trum,^ 

pTc-tor, 

pic-tura, 

u-sQra,^ 

audi-tu9, 

vi-sus,* 

audl-tio, 

moni-tio,^ 

vi-sio,^ 

leg-io,  ^ 

occid-io, 


brother^ 

lover^ 

hearei\ 

defender^ 

hunter^ 

huntress, 

diredresSy 

plough, 

beak, 

painter, 

paiyiting, 

using, 

hearing, 

sight, 

hearing, 

advising, 

seeing, 

a  selecting, 

a  slaying. 


the  ro 

ot      pa, 

to  protect. 

a 

bhra,  fra. 

to  support. 

<c 

ama-re, 

to  love. 

«1 

audi-re, 

to  hear. 

(C 

defend-ere, 

to  defend. 

u 

vena-ri. 

to  hunt. 

«< 

it 

u 

u 

guberna-rc, 

to  direct. 

cc 

ara-re, 

to  plough. 

cc 

rod-ere. 

to  gnaw. 

ii 

ping-ere. 

to  paint. 

M 

(i 

a 

u 

ut-I, 

to  use. 

«i 

audi-re, 

to  hear. 

cc 

vid-ere. 

to  see. 

u 

audi-re. 

to  hear. 

u 

mone-re, 

to  advise. 

u 

vid-ere. 

to  see. 

tt 

leg-ere. 

to  select. 

cc 

occld-ere. 

to  slag. 

1  These  endings  appear  to  be  true  suffixes,  as  they  do  not  contain  the  stem-vowel  of 
the  primitive. 

2  For  the  phonetic  change  by  which  t  in  tor,  tura,  etc.,  unites  with  a  preceding  d  or 
t  and  produces  ss  or  s,  as  in  dffend-tor,  defensor,  see  35,  3,  2). 

3  On  ter,  tor,  trix,  and  tiira,  see  tar,  tra;  on  tvs  and  tio,  see  tu  and  ti;  and  on  io, 
see  ja,  320. 

*  For  rod'trum;  see  36,  3, 1). 

*  For  vt-tura,  tid-tus,  vid-tio;  see  36,  3,  2). 
«  From  stem  moni,  seen  in  moni-tum. 


NO  UNS, 


163 


1.  Ter,  tor,  and  trix  designate  the  agent  or  doer;  trum,  the  means 
of  the  action;  and  tura,  tus,  ti6,  and  io,  the  act  itself;  see  examples. 
But  nouns  in  tus  and  16  sometimes  become  concrete,  and  denote  the  result 
of  the  action :  quaes-ius,  '  gain,'  from  quaes-ere,  '  to  gain ' ;  leg-io,  '  a  select- 
ing '  and  then  '  a  legion '  (the  men  selected),  from  leg-ere,  '  to  select ' ;  cx- 
erci-tus,  '  exercise,'  '  drill,'  and  then  *  an  army '  (a  collection  of  trained 
men),  from  exerce-re,  *  to  exercise.' 

2.  Us,  a,  6 1  sometimes  designate  the  agent  of  the  action :  coqu-us  = 
coquus,  cook,  from  coqu-ere,  to  cook ;  scrih-a^  writer,  from  scrib-ere ;  err-6, 
wanderer,  from  e^^r-dre. 

Note  l.—Tor,  trix,  tura,  and  tus  are  sometimes  added  to  noun  stems  with  or  with- 
out change:  md-tor,  'traveler,^  from  via,  'way';  send-tor,  'senator,'  from  senex  (Geni- 
tive senis,  stem  sen),  'old  mtin' ;  jdni-tor,  'janitor,'  and  jdni-trlx,  'janitrix,'  from  jdn- 
ua,  'gate';  litterd-tura,  'writing,'  from  llttera,  'letter';  conml-d-tus,  'consulship' 
from  ci9;ww/, 'consul.'  ' 

Note  2.— For  nouns  in  id  from  the  stems  of  other  nouns,  see  334,  with  1. 
8.  Other  Examples  are — 

Accusd-tor,  'accuser,'  from  accusd-re,  *to  accuse';  curd-tor,  *  keeper,' 
from  curd-re,  *  to  take  care  of  ;  da-tor,  *  giver,'  from  da-re,  '  to  give ' ;  mi- 
tor,  *  victor,'  from  vi7ic-ere,^  '  to  conquer' ;  inven-trlx,  'a  female  discoverer,' 
from  inven-lre,  *  to  discover';  'md7istrum  :=  mon-es-trum,'^  'prodigy,'  from 
mon-ere,  '  to  admonish ' ;  rds-tmm,  '  rake,'  from  rdd-ere,  '  to  rake,'  '  scrape ' ; 
armd-tura,  '  arming,'  *  equipment,'  from  armd-re, '  to  arm ' ;  nd-tura, '  birth,' 
'nature,'  from  nd-scl,^  'to  be  born';  scHp-tura,  for  scrlb-tura,'^  'writing,' 
from  scrlh-ere,  '  to  write ' ;  dc-tns,  for  ag-tus,^  '  driving,'  '  act,'  from  ag-ere,  '  to 
drive,'  '  act ' ;  dc-tio,  for  ag-tio,  '  action,'  from  ag-ere,  '  to  act ' ;  moni-tio,  *  act 
of  admonishing,'  from  mom-re,  'to  admonish';  mon-itus,  'admonition,'  from 
rnone-re,  'to  admonish';  opln-io,  'opinion,'  from  opin-drl,  'to  think';  opt- 
id,  '  choice,'  from  opt-dre,  '  to  choose.' 

327.  From  the  Stems  of  Verbs  and  from  Roots  are  formed 
nouns  with  the  suffixes — 

or,  us,  es,  ies,  ium,  en,  men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  bulmn, 

culum,  brum,'  crum,  num.^ 


»  O  and  «,  the  stems  of  us  and  a,  are  only  different  forms  of  the  suffix  a;  and  en,  the 
Btem  of  6,  onia,  is  from  the  suffix  a7i;  see  330. 
'  Root  vie. 

3  With  the  compound  suffix  ea-trum,  from  as-tra;  see  as  and  tra,  330. 
*  Root  nd. 

^  See  33, 1. 

«  Observe  change  in  quantity:  ag-ere,  de-tus;  see  Gellius,  IX.,  6. 

7  On  the  forms  bulum,  brum,  culuin,  crum,  see  35,  2,  foot-note  3. 

8  On  or  (for  oa),  us,  and  ea,  see  aa;  on  tea  and  ium,  see  ja;  on  en,  see  an;  on  mm, 
mentum,  monia,  and  monium,  see  man;  on  num,  see  nu—aW  in  330;  on  bulum,  brum, 
culum,  crum,  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  40. 


164 


am-or, 

tim-or, 

gen-US, 

fngus, 

sed-es, 

fac-ios, 

gaud-ium, 

Btud-ium, 

pect-en, 

llu-men, 

Orna-mentiim, 

queri-mOiiia^ 

ali-mOnium, 

vocii-bulum, 

vehi-culum, 

delu-brum, 

simula-crum, 

reg-num, 


DERIVATION  OF   WORDS, 


fear, 
birth, 
cold, 
scat, 
make,  face, 

zeal,  siudt/, 

a  comb, 

a  stream, 

ornament, 

complaint, 

nourishment^ 

appellation, 

vehicle, 

shrine, 

image, 

reign, 


from 
ti 

cc 

c< 

u 

cc 

cc 

cc 

cc 

cc 

cc 

cc 

cc 

i( 

(( 

cc 

cc 

cc 


am-are, 

tim-ero, 

gen  in  gign-ere, 

fiig-ere,^ 

sed-ere,^ 

fac-ere, 

gaud-ere, 

stud-Gre, 

pect-ere, 

flu-ere, 

ornS-re, 

querl, 

ale-re, 

voca-re, 

vehe-re, 

delu-ere, 

simulil-re, 

reg-ere. 


to  love, 
to  fear, 
to  bear, 
to  be  cold, 
to  sit. 
to  make, 
to  rejoice, 
to  be  zealov, 
to  comb, 
to  flow, 
to  adorn, 
to  complai 
to  nourish 
to  call, 
to  carry, 
to  cleans 
to  repreicnt, 
to  i^le. 


1.  Or,  us,  es,  ies,  and  ium  generally  designate  the  action  or  state 
denoted  by  the  verb,  but  es,  ies,  and  ium  sometimes  designate  the  result 
of  the  action :  aediflcium,  *  edifice,'  from  aediflc-dre,  *  to  build.* 

2.  Men,  mentum,  monia,  monium,  and  num  generally  designate  the 
MEANS  of  the  action,  or  its  involuntary  subject,  sometimes  the  act  itself, 
or  its  result:  flu-men,  *a  stream,*  *  something  which  flows,*  iTOva  flu-cre  ; 
ag-men,  *  an  army  in  motion,*  from  ag-ere. 

Note.— The  stem  or  root  is  sometimes  shortened  or  changed  :  mo-mentum^  'moving 
force,'  from  niov-ere. 

3.  Bulum,  culum,  brum,  and  crum  designate  the  instrument  or  the 
place  of  the  action:  vehi-culum,  Wehicle*  (instrument  of  the  action), 
from  vehe-re  ;  sta-bulum,  *  stall  *  (place  of  the  action),  from  std-re. 

Note. — The  vowel  of  the  stem  is  sometimes  changed  :  sepul-crum,  '  sepulchre,**  from 
sepel-lre^  'to  bury';  see  J}4,  3. 

4.  In  culum,  c  is  dropped  after  c  and  g :  v'mc-ulum,  *  a  bond,*  from 
vinc-ire  ;  rcg-ula,  *  rule,*  from  rcg-erc. 

Note. — Z>5,  la^  dgd^  ^ffO^^  and  a  few  other  endings  also  occur:  torpe-d5,  'numbness,' 
from  torpe-re,  'to  be  numb';  cupi-do^  'desire,'  fi-om  cupe-re^  'to  desire';  cande-la, 
'candle,'  from  cande-re^  'to  shine';  vor-dgo^  'whirlpool,'  from  vor-dre,  '  to  swallow  up ' ; 
vert-lgd, '  a  turn,'  from  vert-cre, '  to  turn.' 

5.  Other  Examples  are — 

Splend-or,  'brightness,'  from  ftplend-ere,  *  to  bo  bright*;  op-us^  *  work,' 
from  the  root  op  for  ap,  *  work  ' ;  dec-us,  *  ornament,'  from  root  dec,  in  dec-et, 

*  In  several  of  these  examples  the  noun  is  not  strictly  derived  from  the  verb,  but 
both  noun  and  verb  are  formed  from  one  common  root,  as  frlg-us  and  fr'ig-ere  from  the 
root  frig. 

'^  Sed-ere  and  sed-es  show  a  variable  root-vowel— e,  e  ;  see  /JO,  note  2. 

8  See  Corssen,  I.,  p.  577;  II.,  pp.  802,  803. 


ADJECTIVES, 


165 


I 


•it  is  becoming*;  nul-es,  'cloud,'  from  the  root  nub  in  nub-ere,  *to  veil'; 
spec-ies,  nook,'' from  spec^ere,  *  to  look';  effug-ium,  'escape,'  from  effug-ere, 
'  to  escape' ;  imper-ium,  '  command,'  from  irnper-dre,  'to  command' ;  certd- 
r/z^y^,  '  contest,'  from  certd-re,  'to  contend';  docu-7ne?itum;'- 'lesson,''  'docu- 
ment,* from  doce-re,  '  to  teach' ;  nUtrl-mentum,  'nourishment,'  from  nutrl-re, 
'to  nom'ish''  '/pd-hulum,  'fodder,'  from  the  root  pd  \n  pd-scere,  'to  feed'  ; 
spectd-culum,  'sight,*  from  spectd-re,  'to  behold';  lu-crum,  'gain,'  from 
lu-ere,  '  to  pay ' ;  do-num,^  '  gift,'  from  the  root  da  in  da-re,  '  to  give.* 

FORMATION"    OF    ADJECTIVES    BY    SUFFIXES. 
I.  Adjectives  from  Nouns. 
328.  Fullness.— Adjectives  denoting  fullness,  abundance,  sup- 

ply,  generally  end  in — 

osus,     c5sus,    lens,     lentus,    tus.* 

anim-osus,  full  of  courage,        from        animus,  spirit,  courage. 


fruitful, 

tvarlike, 

pestilential. 


u 

u 
,li 
u 
t( 
u 
u 


fructus, 
bellum, 
pestis, 


fruit, 
loar. 


pest. 


fructu-Osus, 

belli-cosus, 

pesti-lens, 

pesti-lentus,  " 

vino-lentus,  full  of  wine,  "  vinum,  wtne. 

fraudu-lentus,        fraudulent,  "  fraus,  fraud, 

ala-tus,  winged,  "  ala,  ^o^7ig. 

turrl-tus,  iurreted,  "  turris,  turret, 

cornu-tus,  horned,  "  cornu,  horn. 

jus-tus,  just,  "  jus,  rigid. 

Note.— Before  osus  the  stem-vowel  is  generally  dropped,  but  u  is  retained:  aninio- 
v8U8^  anim-osus,  but  fructu-osus. 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Ann-osus,  'full  of  years,'  from  annus,  'year*;  luxuri-osus,  'luxurious,* 
from  ?^7a;^^/'^a, ' luxury ' ;  ^^r^c^w^05 2/5, ' dangerous,'  from pericul urn,  'danger'; 
tenehr-osus  and  tenebri-eosus,  'gloomy,*  from  tenebrae,  'gloom';  tiirhu4entus, 
'riotous,'  from  turha,  'riot';  barhd-tits,  'bearded,'  from  harla,  'beard'; 
aurl'tus,  'long  eared,'  from  awm, 'ear';  onus-tus,  'burdened,*  from  onus, 
'burden.* 

329.  Material.— Adjectives  designating  the  material  of  which 
anything  is  made  generally  end  in —  ^ 

1  With  modified  stem  or  root:  dace,  docu;  da,  do. 

'^  On  osus,  see  Schleicher,  p.  403;  Corssen,  I.,  p.  C2;  IL,  p.  C88.  Cosus  is  from  co 
and  osus;  thus  from  Ullum,  'war,'  is  formed  lelli-cus,  'belonging  to  war';  and  from 
helli'CUS  is  formed  bellico-dsus,  helli-cosus,  '  warlike.'  On  lens,  lentus,  see  ra,  la,  320. 
The  vowel  before  lens,  Z6n^?/s-generally  u,  sometimes  a  or  i— was  originally  the  stem- 
vowel  of  the  primitive,  as  in  vlno-lentus,  pesti-lens,  pesti-lentus,  but  it  was  sometimes 
treated  as  a  part  of  the  suffix:  ri-olentus,  'violent,'  from  ms,  'force.'  Tus  is  identical 
with  tus  in  the  passive  participle,  and  when  added  to  vowel-stems  is  preceded  by  d,  % 
OTu:  dld-tus,  turrl-tus,  cornu-tus,  Uke  ama-tus,  audl-tus,  acu-tus  ('sharpened,'  from 
acu-o,  '  to  sharpen ').    It  may.  however,  be  added  to  consonant-stems :  jus-tus. 


166 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS, 


ADJECTIVES, 


167 


aur-eus, 

argent-eus, 

fag-eus, 

fagi-nus,^ 

fagi-neus,* 

popul-nus,3 

popul-neus,3 
papyr-aceus, 
later-icius, 


eus,  nus,  neus,  aceus,  icius. 


golden^ 
of  silvei'y 
of  beech, 


of  poplar, 

of  papyrus, 
of  brick. 


from 
t< 

u 

a 

u 

u 

a 

u 

«t 


aiirum, 

argentum, 

fagus, 


44 
U 


populus, 

papyrus, 
later, 


gold, 

silver, 

a  beech, 
u 

a 

a  poplar, 

44 

papyims, 
brick. 


NoTE.-These  endings  sometimes  denote  characteristic  or  possession :  mrgineus 
belonging  to  a  maiden.'  * 

^  330.  Characteristic— Adjectives  signifying  belonging  to,  de- 
rived from,  generally  end  in — 


cus, 

civi-cus, 

patr-icus, 

natur-alis, 

mort-alis, 

host-Ills, 

civ-ills, 

oppid-Snus, 

urb-anus, 

mar-inus, 

equ-Inus, 

lun-aris, 

salut-Sris, 

auxili-arius, 

reg-ius, 

orator-ius, 

for-ensis. 


icus,  alls,  ills,  anus,  inus, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

paternal, 

natural, 

inortal, 

hostile, 

relating  to  a  citizen, 

of  the  town, 

of  the  city, 

77iarine, 

of  pertaining  to  a  horse, 

lunar, 

salutary, 

auxiliary, 

royal, 

of  an  orator, 

forensic, 


aris,  arius,  ius,  ensis. 
from 


M 
M 
M 
U 
M 
M 
U 
<C 

a 

Ci 
iC 

tc 

iC 


CIVIS, 

pater, 

natura, 

mors, 

hostis, 

civis, 

oppidum, 

urbs, 

mare, 

equus, 

luna, 

salus, 

auxilium, 

rex, 

orator,* 

forum. 


citizen, 

father, 

nature, 

death, 

enemy, 

citizen, 

toion, 

city. 

sea. 

horse. 

moon. 

safety, 

aid. 

king. 

orator, 

forum. 


'^VV^'^^.T'  '"'  ^''''''°'  ^^"  PP-  ^^^-^^'  ^W,  III.,  p.  429;  on  nus,  see 
na,  320.    J^eus  adds  eus  to  no,  seen  in  mis;  aceus  adds  eus  to  ae,  seen  in  ax  (333 
foot-note  2) ;  and  ic-ius  adds  ius  to  ic  or  ico;  seeja,  330,  and  icm,  330.  ' 

2  Stem-vowel  changed  to  i  before  nus  and  neus. 

3  Stem-vowel  dropped  before  nus  and  neus. 

<  On  cus,  see  ka,  320.  In  i-eus,  i  was  originally  the  stem-vowel  of  the  primitive  but 
was  finally  treated  as  a  part  of  the  suflSx,  as  in  patr-icus.  In  the  same  way  the  vowels 
a  and  t  m  alts.  His,  arts,  arius,  anus,  and  mus  were  developed  from  the  stem-vowcls 
of  the  primitives;  thus  in  such  words  as  doc-i-Hs,  'docile;  from  doc-e-re,  the  suffix 
seems  to  have  been  originally  lis,  but  at  length  the  preceding  i  was  treated  as  a  part  of 
the  suffix,  making  ilU.  If  now  ills  be  added  to  hosti,  the  stem  of  hostis,  we  shall  have 
hosft-ihs  =  host-Uis ;  or,  with  Corsscn,  we  may  suppose  that  from  hostis  was  formed 
the  verb  hostl-re,  and  that  the  ending  lis  was  added  directly  to  hostl,  making  ho.^tUlis 
1  ho  long  mitial  vowel  in  other  endings  is  supposed  to  have  had  a  similar  origin     Alis 

I  :  """"f  "rt' ''"^  x''*'"''"^  *^^  '^""^'  '"^^'  ^'  ^  ^°^  ^  ^^«  interchangeable;  see'm,  la] 
foot-note,  320.  Arius  =  ari-ius.  On  anus,  inus,  and  ius,  soe  Ja  and  na,  320;  on 
ensis,  see  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  62,  254;  II.,  pp.  658,  719. 

^  But  ord-tor  is  formed  from  ora-re  by  adding  tor  to  the  stem ;  see  326. 


1.  Ester  or  estris,^  timus,  itimus,  ticus,^  cinus,  and  a  few  other  end- 
ings occur :  te^'r-ester  or  ta-r-estris,  *  terrestrial,'  from  terra,  *  earth ' ;  mari- 
timus,  *  maritime,'  from  mare,  *  sea ' ;  leg-itimus,  *  lawful,'  from  lex,  legis, 
'  law ' ;  rus-iicus,  *  rustic,'  from  rus^  *  country ' ;  vdti-cinus,  *  prophetic,' 
from  vdtes,  *  prophet.' 

2.  Other  Examples  arc — 

Doniini'Cus,  '  of  a  master,'  from  dominus,  *  master';  serv-ilis,  *  slavish,' 
from  servus,  *  slave ' ;  vir-llis,  *  manly,'  from  vir,  '  man ' ;  capit-dlis,  *  of  the 
head,'  *  capital,'  from  caput,  '  head ' ;  regrdlis,  '  kingly,'  from  rex,  '  king ' ; 
consul'dris,  'consular,'  from  consul,  *  consul';  mUit-dris,  *  military,'  from 
miles,  *  soldier';  agr-drius,  ^  of  or  relating  to  land,'  from  ager,  'field';  ar- 
gent-drius,  *  of  silver,'  from  argentum,  'silver';  can-lnus,  'of  a  dog,'  from 
canis,  'dog';  lup-lnus,  'of  a  wolf,'  from  lupus,  'wolf;  mont-dnus,  'of  a 
mountain,'  from  mons,  '  mountain ' ;  nox-ius,  '  injurious,'  from  noxa,  '  in- 
jury ' ;  patr-ius,  '  of  a  father,'  from  pater,  'father' ;  imperdtdr-ius,  '  of  a  com- 
mander,' from  imperdtor,  '  commander.' 

33 1 .  Adjectives  from  proper  nouns  generally  end  in — 
anus,  ianus,  inus ;  ius,  iacus,  icus ;  ensis,  iensis ;  as,  aeus,  eus.^ 


Sull-anus, 

of  Sulla, 

from 

Sulla, 

Sulla, 

Rom-anus, 

Roman, 

Roma, 

Rome. 

Mari-anus, 

of  Mariu% 

Marius, 

Marius, 

Ciceron-ianus, 

Ciceronian, 

Cicero, 

Cicero, 

Lat-Inus,* 

Latin, 

Latium, 

Latium. 

Plaut-inus, 

of  Plauius, 

Plautus, 

Plautus. 

Corinth-ius, 

Corinthian, 

Corinthus, 

Corinth. 

Corinth-iacus, 

u 

u 

u 

Britann-icus, 

British, 

Britannus, 

a  Briton, 

Cann-ensis, 

of  Cannae, 

Cannae, 

Cannae. 

,.  Athen-iensis, 

Athenian, 

Athenae, 

Athens. 

iliden-as. 

of  Fidcnae, 

Fldenae, 

Fidenae. 

femyrn-aeus. 

Smyrnean, 

Smyrna, 

Smyrna. 

Vythagor-eus, 

Pythagorean, 

Pythagoras, 

Pythagoras, 

^1.  Anus  and  ianus  are  the  endings  generally  used  in  derivatives  f 
Names  of  Persons  ;  but  others  also  occur. 

Note  1. — Many  of  these  adjectives  from  names  of  places  are  also  used  substantively 
as  Patrial  or  Gentile  Nouns  to  designate  the  citizens  of  the  place :  Corinthil,  the  Co- 
rinthians; Athenienses,  the  Athenians. 

Note  2. — The  Roman  Gentes  or  clans  were  all  designated  by  adjectives  in  ius,  as 
gens  Cornelia,  gens  Julia. 

*  The  ending  ester  or  estris  may  be  formed  by  adding  ter  or  tris  to  es  from  the  suffix 
as  (330) ;  but  see  Corssen,  II.,  p.  549. 

2  On  ti-mu8,  i-ti-mu^,  and  ti-cus,  see  ta,  ma,  ca,  320. 

3  When  appended  to  vowel  stems,  these  endings  take  the  place  of  the  stem-vowel: 
SulUdnus.  In  fact,  anus  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  stem-vowel  with  the  sufiix.  So 
in  Mari-dnus,  but  in  examples  like  this  the  i  before  dnu^  was  finally  treated  as  a  part 
of  the  suffix,  making  ianus,  as  seen  in  Cicercn-idnus.  Inus  in  Lat-inus  contains  io, 
from  Lat-io,  the  stem  of  Latium, 


108 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


VERBS, 


( 


Note  8.-An  adjective  in  iu8,  used  substantively,  formed  a  part  of  the  name  of  every 
distinguished  Eoman,  and  designated  the  gms  to  which  he  belonged ;  see  Roman  Karnes, 
G49. 

II.  Adjectives  from  Adjectives. 

332.  Diminutives  from  other  adjectives  generally  end  like 
diminutive  nouns  (321)  in — 

lus,  ulus,  cuius.  ^ 

somewhat  drunken^  from 

goldcriy 
rather  long^ 
rather  poor^ 

Note  1.— The  endings  ellua  and  Ulus  also  occur  as  in  noims  (3}}1,4):  nov-ellu^^ 
*no\v,'  from  novus,  'new.'' 

Note  2.— 6Wj^«  is  sometimes  added  to  comparatives:   duHus-culus,  'somewhat 
hard,'  from  dilrior^  dirrius,  'harder.' 

III.  Adjectives  from  Verbs  and  from  Roots. 

333.  Verbal  adjectives  generally  end  in — 
bundus,  cundus,  du3;  biUs,  tills,  sUis,  Us;  ax.* 


ebrio-lus, 
aureo-lus, 
long-ulus, 
pauper-culus, 


a 
u 


ebrius, 
aureus, 
longus, 
pauper, 


drunlcai. 

golden. 

long. 

poor,  \ 


mira-bundus, 

mori-bundus, 

vere-cundus, 

cali-dus, 

pavi-dus, 

ama-bilis, 

dQc-tilis, 

flec-silis,^  ) 

flexilis,      ) 

doci-lis, 

pugn-ax, 

aud-ax, 


wondering^ 

dying, 

diffident, 

warm, 

fearful, 

worthy  of  love, 

ductile, 

flexible, 

docile, 

pugnacious, 

daring. 


from 

mlra-ri, 
mori, 

to  wonder, 
to  die. 

vere-rT, 
cale-re, 

to  fear, 
to  he  warm. 

u 

pave-re, 

ama-re, 

duc-ere, 

to  fear, 
io  love, 
to  lead. 

(( 

flect-ere, 

io  turn. 

t( 

doce-re. 

to  teach. 

pugna-re, 
aude-re. 

to  fight, 
io  dare. 

1.  Bundus  and  cundus  have  nearly  the  force  of  the  present  participle ; 
but  bundus  is  somewhat  more  expressive  than  the  participle :  laeta-bundus, 
rejoicing  greatly ;  and  cundus  generally  denotes  some  characteristic  rather 
than  a  single  act  or  feeling:  vere-cundus,  diffident. 

2.  Dus  retains  the  simple  meaning  of  the  verb. 

3.  Bills,  tills,  silis,  and  lis  denote  capability,  generally  in  a  passive 
sense :  amabilis,  capable  or  worthy  of  being  loved ;  sometimes  in  an  active 
sense :  terribilis,  terrible,  capable  of  producing  terror. 

^  See  p.  158,  foot-note  6. 

2  Bundus  is  explained  by  Corssen  and  others  as  formed  by  appending  undus,  endus, 
the  Gerundive  suffix,  to  hu=fu,  as  seen  inful;  cundus,  by  adding  the  same  suffix  to 
CO  {ka,  330);  see  Corssen,  IL,  pp.  310-312.  On  dus,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  302,  803-  on 
lis,  see  m,  la,  330;  and  on  bilis,  330,  foot-note  1 ;  also  Corssen,  I.,  pp.  16d-lC9-  on  Hlis 
and  silis,  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  41,  826.  The  ending  ax  =  a-c-s  is  for  d-co-s,  in  which  d  was 
onginally  the  stem-vowel  of  an  a-verh:  thus  pugn-a-oo-s  hecomea  pvgna-cs,  pugnax, 

*  Flec-silis^Jlect-tms;  see  35,  3,  2). 


169 


4.  Ax  denotes  inclination,  generally  a  faulty  one :  loquax,  loquacious. 

5.  Cus,  icus,  ucus,  vus,  uus,  ivus,  tivus,  ticius,  lus,  and  ulus  ^  also 
occur : 

Medi-cus,  *  healing,'  'medical,'  from  mede-rl,  'to  heal';  am-icus,  'friend- 
ly,' from  am-dre,  '  to  love ' ;  cad-ucus,  '  falling,'  '  inclined  to  fall,'  from  cad- 
ere,  'to  fall';  sal-vus,  'safe,'  from  root  sal,  'whole,'  'sound';  7ioc-uii8  and 
noc-lvus,  '  hurtful,'  from  noc-ere,  '  to  hurt ' ;  cap-tivus,  '  captive,'  from  cap-ere, 
'  to  take ' ;  fictlcius,  iox  fig -ticius,  '  feigned,'  horn  fig,  the  root  offing-ere,  '  to 
form,'  'fashion,'  'feign';  exim-ius,  'select,'  'choice,'  from  exim-ere^  'to 
select  out ' ;  cred-ulus,  '  credulous,'  from  cred-ere,  '  to  believe.' 

6.  Other  Examples  are — 

Ludi-hundus,  '  sportive,'  '  playful,'  from  lude-re,  '  to  play ' ;  rldi-hundus, 

*  laughing,' from  Hde-re,  'to  \siMg\i' ',  fd-cundus,  'eloquent,'  from  fd-H,  'to 
speak ' ;  ju-cundus,  for  juv-cundus,  '  pleasant,'  from  juv-dre,  '  to  aid,'  '  de- 
light'; avi'dus,  ' greedy,' from  ave-re,''io  long  for';  cupi-dus,  'desirous,' 
from  cupe-re,  '  to  desire '  ;  timi-dus,  '  timid,'  from  time-re,  '  to  fear ' ;  faci-lis^ 

*  easy,'  '  capable  of  being  done,'  from  face-re,  'to  do ' ;  nubi-lis,  '  marriage- 
able,' from  nube-re,  '  to  marry ' ;  uti-lis,  '  useful,'  from  utl,  '  to  use ' ;  credi- 
bills,  '  credible,'  from  crede-re,  '  to  believe ' ;  terri-bilis,  '  terrible,'  from  terre- 
re,  'to  terrify';  laudd-bilis,  'praiseworthy,'  from  laudd-re,  'to  praise ';/^r- 
tilis,  'fertile,'  Urom  fer-re,  'to  bear';  cap-dx,  'capacious,'  from  cap-ere,  'to 
take ' ;  ten-dx^  '  tenacious,'  from  ten-ere,  '  to  hold.' 

IV.  Adjectives  from  Adverbs  and  Prepositions. 

334.  A  few  adjectives  are  formed  from  adverbs  and  preposi- 
tions :  ^ 

cras-tinus, 

contra-rius, 

inter-nus, 

super-bus, 

super-nus, 


of  to-morrow^ 

contrary, 

inter'iial, 

haughty^ 

upper, 


from 


(I 


eras, 

contra, 

inter, 

super, 
u 


to-morrow, 

against. 

among,  within, 

above. 
u 


POKMATIOiq"    OF    VERBS    BY    SUFFIXES. 

I.  Verbs  from  Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

335.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns  and  adjectives  are  called  De- 
nominatives.    They  end  in — 

CONJ.   I.  CONJ.   II.  CONJ.    III.  CONJ.   IV. 

0,  a-re,  eO,  e-re,  uo,  ue-re,^  io,  i-re.* 


1  Vus,  uus,  and  l-vus  are  only  different  forms  of  the  same  suffix;  vms  was  formed  by 
vocalizing  v  in  ^us;  l-vus,  by  adding  vtis  to  the  stem-vowel  i;  noc-l-vus,  as  if  from  a 
verb,  noc-lre  =  noc-ere.    The  other  endings  are  composed  of  elements  already  explained. 

2  But  adverbs  and  prepositions  are  in  origin  case-forms;  see  304;  307,  note  1. 
'  Conjugation  III.  coi\ia,ms  primitive  verbs  with  a  few  derivatives. 

*  According  to  Curtius  and  others,  the  suffix  which  was  added  to  the  stems  of  nouns 
and  adjectives  to  form  verbs  was  originally  ^'a,  pronounced  ya,  probably  identical  with  i, 

8 


170 


DERIVATION  OF  WORDS. 


cur-o,  a-re, 


to  care  foi\  from  cur-a, 

to  put  to  flighty  "  fug-a, 

to  fgU,  "  pugn-a, 

to  carry  on  ivar^  "  "^  bell-um, 

to  give,  "  don-um, 

to  make  firm,  "  firm-us, 

to  labor,  **  labor, 

to  liberate,  "  liber, 

to  name,  "  nomen, 

to  be  white,  "  alb-us, 

to  make  brigld,  "  clar-us, 

to  be  bright, 

to  bloom,  "  flos,                    flower. 

to  shine,  "  lux— luc-s,        'light. 


n 
u  % 

u 

u 
i( 

(( 

n 
a 
u 
u 
u 
u 


care, 
flight, 
battle, 
war. 

gift- 

firm. 

labor. 

free, 

name. 

white. 

bright. 


met-us, 

stat-us, 

fin-is, 

moll-is, 

vest-is, 

serv-us, 

custos. 


fear. 

position. 

end. 

soft.. 

garment. 

servant. 

guardian. 


fug-o,  a-re, 

pugn-6,  a-re, 

bell-o,  a-re, 

dOn-o,  a-re, 

firm-o,  a-re, 

labor -6,  a-re, 

liher-o,  a-re, 

noiiiin-o,  a-re, 

alb-eo,  e-re, 

clar-o,  a-re, 

clar-8o,  e-re, 

flor-eo,  e-re, 

liic-eo,  e-re, 

met-uo,  ue-re,         to  fear, 

8tat-u6,  ue-re,         to  place, 

fin-io,  i-re,  to  finish, 

moll-Io,  i-re,  to  soften, 

vest-io,  I-re,  to  clothe, 

serv-io,  i-re,  to  serve, 

custod-io,  i-re,  to  guard, 

Note  1.— Denominatives  of  the  second  conjugation  are  intransitive,  but  most  of  the 
others  are  transitive. 

Note  2.— Derivatives,  like  other  verbs,  may  of  course  V  deponent:  dominor,  an,  'to 
domineer,'  from  dominua,  'master';  mlror,  ari,  'to  wonder  at,'  from  minis,  'wonder- 
ful'; partior,  Irl,  'to  part,'  'divide,'  from  pars ,  pa7t is,  'part.' 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Oulp-dre,  *  to  find  fault,'  from  culp-a,  *  fault' ;  glorl-cwi,  '  to  boast,' '  glory,» 
from  glori-a, '  glory ' ;  nov-dre,  *  to  make  new,'  from  iiovus,  '  new ' ;  regn-dre, 

*  to  reign,'  from  regmim,  *  royal  power ' ;  lev-are,  '  to  lighten,'  from  levis, 

*  light';  honor-dre,  *  to  honor,'  from  honor,  *  honor';  laud-are,  'to  praise,' 
from  laus  =  laud-s,  '  praise  ' ;  saev-lre,  'to  be  fierce,'  from  saevus,  'fierce.' 

the  root  of  l-re, '  to  go.'  This  suffix  added  to  a,  the  original  stem-vowel  of  most  nouns 
and  adjectives,  formed  a-Ja,  still  preserved  in  the  ending  ajd-mi  in  a  large  class  of  San- 
skrit verbs.  From  this  compound  sufiix  aja  are  derived  in  Latin,  in  the  first  conjuga- 
tion, (1)  aO,  contracted  to  0:  cur-0  =  cilr-ajo  for  cur-ao  for  cur-aja;  (2)  a:  cur-u-8, 
shortened  to  a  in  cur-a-i  for  cur-d-t; — in  the  second  conjugation,  (1)  eO:  luc-eo  for  luc- 
ejo  for  Ific-aja;  {2)e:  Idc-e-s,  shortened  to  e  in  luc-e-t  for  luc-e-t;  and  iu  the  fourth 
conjugation,  (1)  io  and  iu:  serv-iO  for  serv-ijo  for  aerc-ajay  serv-iu-nt  for  serv-iju-nt 
for  serv-ajit-nt;  and  (2)  I:  serv-t-s,  shortened  to  i  in  serv-i-t  for  serv-i-t;  see  Bopp,  I., 
pp.  207-229;  Curtius,  Verbum,  I.,  pp.  292,  826-848;  Schleicher,  pp.  35&-3G1.  For  an  ob- 
jection to  this  explanation  of  the  a-verbs,  see  Corssen,  II.,  pp.  738-786.— On  final  0  of  the 
first  person,  see  347, 1,  foot-note  5.— The  suffix  ^>,  added  to  original  i-stems,  formed  ija 
and  gave  rise  to  i-ioerhs :  flnio  =fin-i-j6  =fln-ija ;  and  added  to  u-stema,  it  formed 
Xi^a  and  gave  rise  to  u-verbs:  met^uO  =  met-u-jo  =  met-vja.^ln  general,  a-stems  give 
rite  to  a-verbs:  cnr-a,  cur-d-re;  o-stems,  sometimes  to  a-verba,  sometimes  to  e-verls, 
and  sometimes  to  i-rerbs :  frmus,  %iem  Jirmo,  fit^m-d-re ;  albus,  stem  alb-o,  alb-e-re; 
eervus,  stem  serv-o,  serv-l-re ;  consonant  stems,  to  a-terba,  e-verba,  or  i-verba,  after  the 
analogy  of  vowel  stems :  labor  for  labor,  labor-d-re;  fiba,  flbr-e-re  for  Jloa-e-re  (31, 1); 
cuatda,  stem  cuatdd,  cuatod-l-re. 


um, 


in 


II.  Verbs  from  Verbs.  ^  -^^ 

336.  Frequentatives  or  Intensiveb  denote  repeated,  con- 
tinued, or  intense  action.  -  They  are  generally  of  the  first  conjuo-a- 
tion,  and  are  formed —  * 

I.  From  the  stem  of  the  participle  ^  in  tus  or  sus  • 

frori;i 


cant-o,  are,  losing,    . 

capt-o,  are,  to  snatch, 

dat-o,  are,  to  give  often, 

habit-o,  are,  to  inhabit, 

quass-o,  are,  to  shake  violently, 

territ-o,  pre,  to  frighten  often. 


from   cantus 
"      captus 
datus 
habitus 
quassus 
territus 


u 


can 6,     to  siiig.^ 
capio,     to  take. 
do,         to  give. 
habeo,   to  have. 
quatio,  to  shake. 
terreo,    to  frighten. 


II.  From  the  present  stem,  by  adding  to  and  changing  the  preceding 
vowel  to  i,  if  not  already  in  that  form :  ^ 


'>» 


agi-to,  are, 

clami-to,  are, 

rogi-to,  are, 

voci-to,  are, 

voli-to,  are. 


to  shake, 
to  shout  often, 
to  ask  eagerly, 
to  call  often, 
to  flit  about. 


from 


(C 


■  ■^■.MH^- 


ago, 

claiftQ^ 

rogo, 

voco, 

volo. 


'^'^^^ove,  lead, 
ia^hout. 
to  ask. 
to  call, 
to  fly. 


Note  1.— Frequentatives  are  sometimes  formed  from  other  frequentatives:  5  caniiio 

*  to  sing  often,^  from  canto  frooi  cano  ;  dictito, '  to  say  often,'  from  dicto  from  dUo.       ' 

Note  2.-A  few  derivatives  in  essD  and  isao  also  occur.  They  are  intensive  in  force 
denoting  earnest  rather  than  repeated  action,  and  are  of  the  third  conjugation :  facio 
/acesso, '  to  do  earnestly ' ;  inclpio,  incipissO, '  to  begin  eagerly.'  ' 

1.  Other  Examples  are — 

Dlctd,  Ho  say  often,'  from  dlco,  Ho  say ' ;  specto,  Ho  behoM,'  from  speis^O, 
Ho  look  ^V:,factito,  Ho  do  often,'  from  faci^,  Ho  do,'  Hnake';  int^ito, 

*  to  command  often,'  from  impero,  '  to  command ' ;  rapid,  '  to  snatch,'  from 
rapio,  *  to  seize.' 

337.  Inceptives  or  Inchoatiyes  denote  the  beginning  of  the 
action.     They  are  of  the  third  conjugation,  and  end  in  scQ  : 

1  Either  directly  or  through  the  medium  of  nouns,  adjectives,  or  participles. 

2  They  are  thus  strictly  denominatives  (335).  Intransitive  verbs,  though  without 
the  participle  in  tua  or  aua,  may  form  frequentaUtea  after  the  analogy  of  transitive 
verbs:  curaD,  dre,  'to  run  about,'  formed  as  if  from  curaua  from  curro,  'to  run';  mn- 
tito,  are, '  to  come  often,'  formed  as  if  from  ventua,  from  tenio,  '  to  come.' 

»  Remember  that  the  stem  of  the  participle  ends  in  o;  thus  cantua  =  canto-a.  Ob- 
serve, therefore,  that  the  verb  canto,  '  I  sing,'  is  in  form  like  the  stem  of  the  participle. 
Canto  was,  however,  originally  produced  by  adding  Ja  to  canta,  the  original  stem  of 
cantua.  making  canta-ja,  cantajo,  cantao,  canto;  see  also  335,  foot-note. 

*  The  formation  from  the  participle  was  doubtless  the  original  method,  but  at  length 
to  was  regarded  as  the  suffix,  and  was  accordingly  added  to  present  stems,  and  as  in  many 
cases  i  preceded,  the  stem-vowel  finally  took  this  form  before  the  suffix  to :  see  Corssen 
II.,  p.  297.  ' 

»  Sometimes  from  frequentatives  no  longer  in  use :  dctito, '  to  act  often,'  as  if  from 
dcto,  not  in  use,  from  ago;  acrlptito,  'to  write  often,'  as  if  from  acripto,  not  in  use, 
from  acr'tbo. 


172 


COMPOSITION  OF  WORDS. 


NOUNS. 


173 


gel-a-sco,  to  begin  to  freeze^  from  gel-o,  S-re,  to  freeze, 

cal-e-sco,  to  become  warm^  "  cal-eo,  6-re,  to  be  warm. 

rub-e-sco,  to  groio  rcd^  "  rub-eo,  e-re,  to  be  red, 

vir-e-sco,  to  grow  grcen^  "  vir-eo,  e-re,  to  be  green. 


trem-i-sco,  to  begin  to  tremble^ 


a 


trem-o, 


e-re,     to  tremble. 


obdorm-I-seo,     to  fall  asleep^  "        obdorm-io,      i-re,     to  sleep. 

338.  Desideratives  denote  a  desire  to  perform  the  action. 
They  are  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  and  end  in  turio  or  surio  : 

par-turio,     ire,       to  strive  to  bring  fortJi^      from      pario,      to  bring  forth. 
e-surio,        Ire,      to  desire  to  eatj  *'         edo,         to  eat.^ 

339.  Diminutives  denote  a  feeble  action.'  They  are  of  the  first 
conjugation,  and  end  in  illo : 

cant-illo,  to  sing  feebly^       from      canto,  to  sing. 

conscrlb-illo,       to  scribble,  "  conscribo,       to  write. 

Note.— For  the  Deeivation  of  Adverbs,  see  304. 

SECTION    III. 

COMPOSITION    OF    WORDS. 

340.  New  words  may  be  formed — 

I.  By  the  union  of  two  or  more  words  under  one  principal  accent, 
without  change  of  meaning : 

J^s  publica,  respublica^  republic ;  agrl  cuUura,  agricultural  agriculture ; 
juris  consultus,  jurisconsultus^  lawyer,  one  skilled  in  the  law ;  quern  ad  mo- 
dum,  quemadmodum^  in  what  way — lit.,  to  what  measure. 

Note.— These  are  compounds  only  in  form.  The  separate  words  retain  in  a  great 
measure  their  identity  both  in  form  and  in  meaning,  and  may  in  fact  be  written  separately. 
Res  puhlica  is  the  approved  form.  Other  examples  of  this  class  are :  Ugis-ldtor,  law- 
giver; jpa^e/';/a77iiZi<78,  father  of  a  family;  senCit  u  8-cdtisultum  ^Aecree  of  ihG^enoXe'^  Tide- 
tenus,  thus  far;  8aepe-nu7nero^  often  in  number;  bene-facio^  to  do  well,  benefit;  male- 
dico,  to  revile;  aatis-facio^  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for;  animum-ad-verto,  anim-ad-verto, 
to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

II.  By  prefixing  an  indeclinable  particle  to  an  inflected  word, 
generally  with  some  change  of  meaning : 

Ad-sum,  to  be  present ;  de-pond,  to  lay  down  ;  re-ponO,  to  replace  ;  e-discO, 
to  learn  by  heart ;  im-memor,  unmindful ;  per-facilis,  very  easy  ;  pro-consul, 

^  These  are  the  only  desideratives  in  common  use,  but  a  few  others  occur :  cend-turiO, 
*to  desire  to  dine,'  from  ceno^  *to  dine';  emp-turio^  *to  desire  to  purchase,'  from  emO, 
'  to  purchase ' ;  nvp-turif)^ '  to  desire  to  marry,'  from  nvho^  *  to  marry.'  They  were  prob- 
ably formed  originally  through  the  medium  of  a  verbal  noun  in  tor  or  sor  (336,  foot-note 
2):  thus,  cenO^  ccnd-tor^  *  one  who  dines';  cend-for-l-re  =  cend-tur-J-re  (o  changed  to 
u),  'to  desire  to  dine';  emo,  emp-tor^  'a  purchaser';  emp-tor-lre  =  emp-tur-l-re,  'to 
desire  to  purchase.' 

^  Probably  denominaticea  formed  from  verb-stems  through  diminutive  verbal  nouns. 


proconsul,  one  acting  for  a  consul ;  inter-regnum,  interregnum,  an  interval 
between  two  reigns. 

III.  By  uniting  two  or  more  simple  stems  or  roots,  and  adding 
appropriate  inflectional  suffixes  when  needed :  ^ 

Igni-color,^  fire-colored ;  gra7idi-aevo-s,^  grand-aevus,  a,  um,  of  great  age  ; 
om7ii-potent-s,  omnipotens,  omnipotent ;  mdgno-animo-s,  mdgnanimus,  a,  um, 
great-souled ;  tuhi-cen,  trumpeter ;  arti-fec-s,  artifex,  artificer ;  alio-qul,  ali- 
quis,'^  any  one. 

1.  In  the  first  element  of  the  compound  observe — 

1)  That  the  stem-vowel  generally  takes  the  form  of  i :  capro-corno-s, 
capri-cornus  ;  tuba-cen,  tuhi-cen. 

2)  That  consonant  stems  sometimes  assume  i :  liondr-i-fco-s,  Tionoriflcus, 
a,  um,  honorable. 

3)  That  the  stem-vowel  disappears  before  another  vowel :  mdgno-ardmus, 
mdgnanimus. 

2.  The  stem-ending  and  the  inflectional  ending  of  the  second  element 
generally  remain  unchanged  in  the  compound  ;  see  examples  above.  But 
observe — 

1)^  That  they  are  sometimes  slightly  changed :  aequo-nocti,  aequi-noctio-m,^ 
aequinoctium,  equinox ;  multa-forma,  multi-formis,  with  many  forms. 

2)  That  a  verbal  root  or  stem  may  be  the  second  element  in  a  compound 
noun  or  adjective  :  tuhi-cen  (cen  =  can,  the  root  of  cano,  to  sing),  trumpeter; 
leti-fer  {fer,  root  of  ferd,  to  bear),  death-bearing. 

Note.— The  words  classed  under  II.  and  III.  are  regarded  as  real  compounds,  but 
those  under  III.  best  illustrate  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  genuine  compounds,  as 
they  are  formed  from  compound  stems  and  have  a  meaning  which  could  not  be  expressed 
by  the  separate  words.  Thus,  mdgnus  animus  means  a  great  soul,  but  mdgnanimus 
means  having  a  great  soul.* 

341.  In  Compound  Nouns,  the  first  part  is  generally  the  stem 
of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition;  and 
the  second  part  is  the  stem  of  a  noun,  or  a  stem  from  a  verbal  root : 

arti-fex,  artist,  from     arti-fac  in     ars        and  facio. 

capri-cornus,         capricoryi,        "        capro-cornu      "      caper       "    cornu. 
aequi-noctium,     equinox,  "        aequo-nocti      "     aequus    "    nox. 

"    homo. 


ne-mo, 


pro-nomen, 


nobody, 
pronoun. 


a 
a 
it 


ne-homon 
pro-nomen 


ne 
pro 


(( 


nomen. 


1  Thus  igni-color  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  stems  without  inflectional  suffix; 
but  in  grand-aevu-8,  the  suffix  s  is  added  to  the  stem  grandaevd,  compounded  of  grandi 
and  aevo, 

2  Literally,  any  other  one. 

«  7Y,  the  stem-ending  oinox,  becomes  ti(\  to  which  is  added  the  nominative-ending  m., 

*  Class  II.  occupies  a  position  intermediate  between  I.  and  III.    Some  compounds 

of  particles  with  verbs,  for  example,  have  developed  a  meaning  quite  distinct  from  that 

denoted  by  the  separate  parts,  while  others  have  simply  retained  the  ordinary  meaning 

of  those  parts. 


174 


COMPOSITIOX  OF  WORDS. 


1.  Compounds  in  ex,  dex,  fex,  cen,  cida,  and  cola  deserve  special 
notice : 

Eemo-ex^  remex^^  oarsman  ;  jus-dex^  judex^"^  judge  ;  arti-fex^  artist ;  tlbia- 
cen^  tihl-cen^'^  flute-player ;  homon-dda^  homi-ddaj^  manslayer ;  agri-cola^* 
husbandman,  one  who  tills  the  soil. 

Note.— ^a;  (for  ag-s)  is  from  the  root  ag  in  ago^  to  drive,  impel;  dex  (for  dies), 
from  die  in  dico^  to  make  known ;  fex  (for  fac-s),  from  fac  in  /ado,  to  make ;  cen^  from 
can  in  cano^  to  sing;  clda  (for  caed-a)^  from  caed  in  caedo,  to  cut,  slay;  cola  (for  Cc?^a), 
from  col  in  co/dJ,  to  cultivate. 

342.  In  Compound  Adjectives,  the  first  part  is  generally  the 
stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  sometimes  an  adverb  or  preposition ; 
and  the  second  is  the  stem  of  a  noun  or  adjective,  or  a  stem  from 
a  verbal  root : 


leti-fer,  death-hearing,    from  leti-fer 

magnanin 
per-facilis,        ve^^y  easy,  "      per-faciU 


in  letum      and  fero. 
magn-animus,  magnanimous,      **      magno-animo    *'   magnus    **    animus. 


(( 


per 


"    facilis. 


1.  Compounds  in  ceps,  fer,  ger,  dicus,  ficus,  and  volus  deserve 
notice : 

Parti-eeps^  taking  part ;  auri-fer^  gold-hearing ;  ai^mi-ger,  carrying  arms ; 
fdti-dicus,  predicting  fate ;  mlri-ficus,  causing  wonder ;  bene-volus,  well- 
wishing. 

Note.— 6V/M  (for  caps)  is  from  the  root  cap  in  capio,  to  take;  /^r,  from  fer  in  ferO, 
to  bear;  ger,  from  ger  in  gei'O,  to  carry;  dicua  (for  dic-o-s),  from  die  in  dicO,  to  make 
known  ;7fcws  (tor  fac-os),  from  fac  in  facio,  to  make;  volus  (for  vol-o-s),  from  vol  in 
void,  to  wish. 

343.  Compound  Nouns  and  Adjectives  are  divided  according 
to  signification  into  three  classes : 

I.  Determinative  Compounds,  in  which  the  second  part  is  qualified  by 
the  first : 

Jfitcr-rex,  interrex ;  merl-dies^^  midday ;  hene-volus,  well-wishing ;  per- 
mdgnus,  very  great ;  in-dignus,  unworthy. 

II.  Objective  Compounds,  in  which  the  second  part  is  limited  by  the 
first  as  object : 

Prln-ceps,  taking  the  first  place;  helli-ger,  waging  war;  ju-dex.,  judge, 
one  who  dispenses  (makes  known)  justice  ;  Jiomi-clda,  one  who  slays  a  man ; 
agri-cola,  one  who  tills  the  field.     See  other  examples  in  342,  1. 

III.  Possessive  Compounds,  in  origin  mostly  adjectives.     They  desig- 

1  (?  is  dropped  in  remex,  and  s  \n  judex;  see  /J 7;  36,  3,  note  3. 
^  A,  weakened  to  i,  unites  with  the  preceding  i,  forming  J. 
3  iV dropped,  and  o  weakened  to  i;  see  36,  8,  note  3. 

*  The  stem-vowel  o  of  agro  is  weakened  to  i:  agri;  see  22, 

*  From  medlus  and  dies. 


VERBS, 


175 


nate  qualities  or  attributes  as  possessed  by  some  person  or  thing,  and  are 
often  best  rendered  by  supplying  having  or  possessi7ig : 

Aeni-pes,  having  bronze  feet ;  ^  celeri-pes,  swift-footed ;  dli-pes,  wing-foot- 
ed, having  wings  for  feet ;  mdgn-animus,  having  a  great  soul ;  U7i~animm^ 
having  one  mind ;  long-aevus,  of  great  age,  having  a  long  life. 

344.  Compound  Verbs. — Verbs  in  general  are  compounded 
only  with  prepositions,  originally  adverbs :  ^ 

Ah-ed,  to  go  away ;  ex-eo,  to  go  out ;  prod-eo,  to  go  forth ;  con-voco,  to  call 
together;  de-cido,  to  fall  off;  prae-dlco,  to  foretell;  re-duco,  to  lead  back; 
re-JidO,  to  repair,  to  make  anew. 3 

1.  Facio  and  fio  may  also  unite  with  verbal  stems  in  e: 

Cale-facid,  to  make  v»'arm ;  cale-flo,  to  be  made  warm,  become  warm ; 
Idbe-faclo,  to  cause  to  totter ;  patc-facio,  to  open,  cause  to  be  open. 

2.  Verbs  are  often  united  with  other  words  in  writing  without  strictly 
forming  compounds : 

Manu  mitto  or  manu-mitto,  to  emancipate,  let  go  from  the  hand ;  satis 
facio  or  satis-facio,  to  satisfy,  do  enough  for ;  animum  ad-verto  or  anim-ad- 
verto,  to  notice,  turn  the  mind  to. 

3.  Verbs  in  Jico  and  facto,  like  the  following,  are  best  explained  not 
as  compounds  but  as  denominatives :  * 

Aedi-fico,  to  build,  from  aedifex  /  ampJi-fico,'^  to  enlarge ;  cale-facto,  to 
make  warm,  from  cale-f actus, 

4.  Verbs  compounded  with  prepositions  often  undergo  certain  vowel- 
changes  : 

1)  Short  a  and  e  generally  become  i:  haheo,  ad-hiheo;  teneO,  con-iineo.  But  a 
sometimes  becomes  e  or  u:  carpo,  de-cerpO ;  calcO,  con-culcD, 

2)  Ae  becomes  I :  caedo,  in-cido. 

8)  Au  generally  becomes  o  or  u:  plaudo,  ex-plodo;  claudo,  in-clildo. 

6.  Form  and  Meaning  of  Prepositions  in  Composition. — The  following 
facts  are  added  for  reference : 

A,  ab,  sihs. — 1.  Form  :  a  before  7n  and  v,  and  sometimes  before  /'/  abs 
before  c,  q,  t,  and,  with  the  loss  of  h,  also  before  p^',  au  in  au-fero  and  au- 
fugio ;  ab  before  the  other  consonants,  and  before  vowels. — 2.  Meaning  : 
(1) '  away,'  '  off ' :  d-mitto,  to  send  away  ;  dbs-condo,  to  hide  away  ;  as-porto, 

*  Observe  the  force  of  the  compound.  Aenus  pes  means  a  brazen  foot,  but  aeni-pes 
means  having  brazen  feet;  see  also  340,  III.,  note. 

2  The  words  thus  formed  are  strictly  compounds  of  verbs  with  adverbs,  as  the  origi- 
nal type  of  these  compounds  was  formed  before  the  adverb  became  a  preposition. 

3  Observe  in  these  examples  the  strict  adverbial  use  of  the  particles  ab,  ex,  etc.,  aicay, 
out,  etc.  Prepositions,  on  the  other  hand,  always  denote  relations,  and  are  auxiliary 
to  the  case- endings  ;  see  307,  foot-note. 

*  In  some  of  these  the  primitive  is  not  found  in  actual  use. 
^  As  ahs-pello,  as-pello,  to  drive  away. 


176 


PREPOSITIONS  m  COMPOSITION. 


PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOSITION 


177 


to  carry  off;  au-fvgio^  to  flee  away  ;  ab-snm,  to  be  awav  ;  ah-eo,  to  go  awav  • 
ab-jiew  or  ab-icioi  to  throw  away ;  (2)  in  adjectives,  generally  negaihe  ) 
Or-mens,  without  mind,  frantic ;  ah-similis^  unlike. 

Ad.-l.  Form  :  ad  before  vowels,  and  before  h,  d,  /,  h,  j,  m,  n,  q,  and  v, 
sometimes  before  g,  I,  r,  and  s,  rarely  before  p  and  t;  d  assimilated  belbre 
c,  generally  before  p  and  t,  and  sometimes  before  g,  I,  q,  r,  and  s;  gener- 
ally dropped  before  gn,  sc,  sp,  and  st.^-2.  MEANmo :  *to,»  *  toward'  *  to 
one's  self-  ^on,'  'at,»  'near/  'by';  'besides':  ««f.c^,  to  lead  to ;  ac-eldo, 
to  fall  to,  happen ;  ad-moved,  to  move  toward ;  ac-cipio,  to  receive,  take  to 
one's  self;  ac-cir,gO,  to  gird  on;  ad-laird  or  al-latr%  to  bark  at;  ad-sum 
to  be  present  or  near ;  ad-sto  or  a-std,  to  stand  near,  to  stand  by ;  ad-discO 
to  learn  besides.  ' 

Ante.— 1.  Form:  nnchanged  except  in  anti-cipo,  'to  take  beforehand,' 
and  in  composition  with  sto  :  ante-sto  or  anti-sto,  to  stand  before.-2.  Mean- 
ing: *  before,"  beforehand':  ante-curro,  to  mn  before;  ajite-haheo,  to  prefer 
— lit,,  to  have  or  hold  before. 

Circum.— 1.  Form  :  generally  unchanged,  but  m  is  sometimes  dropped 
m  compounds  of  eo,  to  go:  Hrcnm-eo  or  circu-eo,  to  go  around.— 2.  :Mean- 
iNo  :  '  around,'  '  about ' :  circum-mitto,  to  send  around. 

Com.3— 1.  Form  :  com  before  h,  m,  p  ;  co  before  vowels,^  h,  and  gn  ;  «  con 
or  col  before  I;  cor  before  r;  con  before  the  other  consonants.— 2.  Mean- 
ing :  (1)  'together,'  'with,'  in  various  senses:  co7?^-J^•^  to  drink  together ; 
com-mitto,  to  let  go  together ;  co-eo,  to  go  together ;  coUoquor,  to  talk  with  • 
con-fligo,  to  contend  with;  (2)  'completely,'  'thoroughly' :  cdn-jicio,  to  com- 
plete, make  completely ;  con-cito,  to  rouse  thoroughly ;  con-sUmO,  to  con- 
sunie,  take  wholly;  con-densns,  very  dense. 

E,  ex.— 1.  Form:  ex  before  vowels  and  before  c,  h,  jo,«  q,  s^  t,  and  with 
assimilation  before  //«  e  before  the  other  consonants.»— 2.  Meaning:  (1) 
*  out,'  '  forth,'  '  without,'  implying  '  freedom  from ' :  ex-ed,  to  go  out,  go  forth ; 
ex-cido,  to  fall  out ;  e-do,  to  put  forth  ;  ex-sangnis,  without  blood,  bloodless  ' 
ex-onero,  to  unload,  disburden  ;  (2)  '  thoroughly,'  '  completely,'  '  successful- 
ly ' :  ex-uro,  to  burn  up  ;  e-disco,  to  learn  by  heart ;  ef-ficio,  to  effect,  do  suc- 
cessfully ;  e-durus,  very  hard. 

In.— 1.  Form  :  n  sometunes  assimilated  before  I,  often  before  wio  ^na  r; 

*  See  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

a  Sometimes  retained  :  ad-gnoscO  or  a-gnosco ;  ad- stD  or  a-eto. 
5  An  earlier  form  for  cum. 

*  A  contraction  often  takes  place :  co-ago,  co-go.  Com  is  sometimes  retained  before 
e  or  i,  and  co  or  con  is  used  before  i=ji:  com-edo,  com-itor,  co-icio  or  con-icio^^ 
con-iicAo  or  con-jicio  ;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

*  Co  also  appears  in  cn-necto^  co-mveo^  co-nltor,  and  co-nuhlnm. 
«  But  e-poto  and  e-potus;  ex-scendo  or  e-scendo. 

''Sis  sometimes  dropped  after  a?;  exspectf)  or  ex-pecto. 

8  (7  before  /  is  not  recommended ;  e/-ferO  is  better  than  ec-fero. 

*  But  ex-lix. 

"  Im  is  the  approved  form  before  b,p,  and  m,  especially  in  im-perator,  im-verO  and 
tm-perium,  ' 


often  changed  to  m  before  b  andp;  in  other  situations  unchanged.— 2.  Mean- 
ing :  '  in,'  '  into,'  '  on,'  '  at,'  '  against ' :  in-cold,  to  dwell  in  ;  in-eo,  to  go 
into ;  im-migro,  to  move  into ;  in-mtor,  to  lean  on ;  in-tueor,  to  look  at ; 
ir-rldeo,  to  laugh  at ;  im-pugm,  to  fight  against. 

Inter.— 1.  Form:  unchanged,  except  in  intel-legd,  to  understand.— 2. 
Meaning:  'between,'  sometimes  involving  interruption,^  'together' :  inter- 
venio,  to  come  between,  intervene ;  inter-dico,  to  forbid,  interdict ;  inter- 
necto,  to  tie  together. 

Ob.— 1.  Form:  h  assimilated  before  c,  f,  g,  and^/  dropped  in  o-mitto, 
to  omit,  and  in  operio,  to  cover;  in  other  situations  generally  unchanged.2— 
2.  Meaning:  (1)  '  before,'  'in  the  way,'  'toward,'  'against,'  especially  of  an 
obstruction  or  opposition  :  of-fero,  to  bring  before ;  ob-sto,  to  stand  in  the  way ; 
oc-curro,  to  run  toward,  run  to  meet ;  op-pugnd,  to  attack,  fight  against ;  (2) 
'down,'  'completely' :  oc-cldo,  to  cut  down,  kill;  op-primd,  to  press  down, 
to  overwhelm. 

Per.— 1.  Form:  generally  unchanged,  but  r  is  sometimes  assimilated  be- 
fore l,^  and  is  dropped  before  j  in  compounds  of  juro,  as  pe-jero,^  to  swear 
falsely.— 2.  Meaning:  'through,'  *  thoroughly,' sometimes  in  a  <^a^  5^;^^^  with 
the  idea  of  breaking  tJirongh,  disregarding :  per-lego,  to  read  through;  yer- 
disco,  to  learn  thoroughly  ;  per-fidus,  perfidious,  breaking  faith. 

Post.— 1.  Form:  unchanged,  except  'va.  pd-rnerium,  the  open  space  on 
either  side  of  the  city-wall,  and  pos-merldidnus,^  of  the  afternoon.— 2.  Mean- 
ing :  '  after,'  '  behind ' :  post-habed,  to  place  after,  have  after,  esteem  less. 

Pro,  prod.— 1.  Form:  pro  is  the  usual  form,  both  before  vowels  and 
before  consonants ;  prod,  the  original  form,  is  retained  in  a  few  words  before 
vowels.«— 2.  Meaning:  'forth,'  'forward,'  'before,'  'for':  prdd^,  to  go 
forth  or  forward ;  prd-currd,  to  run  forward ;  prd-pugnd,  to  fight  in  front  of, 
fight  for;  pro-liibeo,  to  hold  aloof,  i.  e.,  out  of  one's  reach,  hence  to  prohibit ; 
prd-mittd,  to  send  forth,  to  hold  out  as  a  promise,  to  promise. 

Sub.— 1.  Form  :  b  assimilated  before  c,  f,  g,  and  p,  and  often  before  m 
and  r ;  dropped  before  sp ;  in  other  situations  unchanged.  The  form  subs^ 
shortened  to  sus,  occurs  in  a  few  words:  sus-cipid,  sus-pendd.—%  Meaning: 
'under,'  'down,'  'from  under,'  'up';  'in  place  of,'  'secretly';  'somewhat,' 
'  slightly ' :  7  sub-ed,  to  go  under ;  sub-labor,  to  slip  down ;  svb-ducd,  to  draw 
from  under,  withdraw ;  sus-cipid,  to  undertake ;  sus-citd,  to  lift  up,  arouse ; 

^  It  is  used  in  several  compounds  referring  to  death:  inter-eo,  to  die;  inter-jicio, 
to  kill. 

^  OU  seems  to  occur  in  a  few  words :  ohs-oUscO,  os-tendo  for  obs-fendo  {b  dropped), 
though  these  words  are  sometimes  otherwise  explained;  thus  ob-solescO,  as  a  compound 
of  soleacO  from  soleO. 

3  As  per-lego,  pel-lego  ;  per-licio,  pel-lioio  ;  but  j9er  is  preferable. 
*  ¥oT  per-juro. 

^  Post-merldidnus  is  also  used;  po-meridianus  is  not  approved,  though  it  occurs. 
«  As  in  prdd-eo,  prod-igo,  prdd-igiw,  and  before  e  in  the  compound  of  sum :  prod- 
6s,  prod-est^  etc. 

7  Mostly  in  adjectives :  sub-absurdus,  somewhat  absurd  ;  suh-dolus,  somewhat  crafty; 
sub-impudent,  somewhat  impudent;  suh-invlsus,  somewhat  odious. 


178 


PREPOSITIONS  m  COMPOSITION. 


suh-stituo,  to  put  in  place  of,  to  substitute ;  mh-ripio,  to  take  away  secretly ; 
suh-rlded,  to  smile,  laugh  slightly ;  sub-dijidlis,  somewhat  difficult. 

Trans.— 1.  Form;  it  generally  drops  s  before  8,  and  it  often  drops  m 
before  d,  y,i  ?,  m,  n ;  it  is  otherwise  unchanged.— 2.  Meaning  :  '  across,' 
'  through,'  '  completely ' :  trdns-currO,  to  run  across ;  trd-ducd,  to  lead  across ; 
irdn-silio,  to  leap  across ;  trdns-igo,  to  transact ;  to  finish,  do  completely  or 
thoroughly— /^Y.,  to  drive  through. 

6.  Form  and  Meaning  of  the  Inseparable  Prepositions. — The  follow- 
ing facts  are  added  for  reference : 

Ambi,  amb.2— 1.  Form  :  amb  before  vowels ;  amhi^  am,  or  an,'^  before 
consonants.— 2.  Meaning  :  *  around,'  *  on  both  sides,'  '  in  two  directions ' : 
amh'iO,^  to  go  round ;  amb-igO,  to  act  in  two  ways,  move  in  different  direc- 
tions, to  hesitate  ;  am-puto,  to  cut  around  or  off;  an-qulro,  to  search  round. 

Dis,  di.— 1.  Form;  dis  beforec,^,  q,  t,  before  8  followed  by  a  vowel,  and, 
with  assimilation,  before/;  but  dir  for  dis  before  a  vowel  ox  h  ;  dA  in  most 
other  situations  ;  but  both  dis  and  dl  occur  before  y. 5—2.  Meaning  :  *  apart,' 
'  asunder,' «  *  between,'  sometimes  negative''  and  sometimes  intensive:  dis- 
fined,  to  hold  apart ;  dl-duco,  to  lead  apart,  divide  ;  dif-fngio,  to  flee  asunder, 
orm  different  directions;  dir-imO,  to  take  in  pieces,  destroy;  dis-sentio,  to 
think  differently,  dissent;  dl-JudicO,  to  judge  between;  dis-pliceO,  to  dis- 
please, not  to  please ;  dif-ficilis,  difficult,  not  easy ;  dl-laudo,  to  praise  highly. 

In.— 1.  Form:  n  dropped  before  gn ;  otherwise  like  the  preposition  in, 
—2.  Meaning  :  *  not,'  *  un '  :  l-gnosco,  not  to  know,  not  to  recollect,  to  par- 
don ;  im-memor,  unmindful ;  in-imlcus,  unfriendly. 

Por,  for  port.8— 1.  Form:  r  assimilated  before  I  and  s;  in  other  situa- 
tions, iwr.—2.  Meaning  :  *  forth,'  '  forward,'  *  near ' :  poUliceor,  to  hold  forth, 
offer,  promise  ;  pos-sideO,  to  possess ; »  por-rigo,  to  hold  out  or  forth,  to  offer: 

Red,  re.— 1.  Form:  red  before  vowels,  before  h,  and  in  red-do;  re  in 
other  situations.— 2.  Meaning:  *back,'  'again,'  *  in  return ':io  red-eo,  to  go 
back ;  re-ficid,  to  repair,  make  again  ;  red-amd,  to  love  in  return. 

Sed,ii  se.— 1.  Form:  «ec/ before  vowels ;  5^  before  consonants.— 2.  Mean- 
ing :  *  apart,'  '  aside ' :  se-cedo,  to  go  apart,  secede ;  se-ponO,  to  put  aside  or  apart. 

Note.— For  the  Composition  of  Adverbs,  see  304,  I.,  2 ;  304,  II.,  1,  note ; 
304,  IV.,  note  2. 


^  Or  before  i=j  or  ji;  see  foot-note  1,  p.  20. 

2  Compare  ambo,  both,  and  a/x0t,  around,  on  both  sides. 

3  An  before  c,  q,  /,  and  t. 
*  For  amb-eO. 

^  Dis-jungo,  dl-judicO. 

«  Both  literally  '  aparV  in  respect  to  place  or  position,  and  figuratively  '  apart'  in 
sentiment  or  opinion. 

7  Especially  in  adjectives :  dis-par,  unequal ;  dis-nmilis,  unlike. 

s  Greek  iroprt,  Trpori,  Trpd?,  to,  toward;  see  Curtius,  881. 

®  To  sit  71  ear  and  so  to  control. 

^0  Sometimes  nej^ative,  not,  un- :  re-slgnn,  to  unseal;  re-clndo,  to  open. 
11  Probably  an  old  ablative  of  sul  and  identical  with  sed,  but. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES. 


179 


PART  THIRD. 
SYNTAX 


CHAPTER    I. 
SYNTAX    OF    SENTENCES. 


I.   CLASSIFICATION    OF    SENTENCES. 

345.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

346.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  either  a 
single  thought  or  two  or  more  thoughts. 

347.  A  Simple  Sentence  expresses  a  single  thought : 
Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  {built)  the  world.   Cic. 

348.  A  Complex  Sentence  expresses  one  leading  thought  with 
one  or  more  dependent  thoughts : 

Donee  eris  felix,  multos  numerabis  amicos,  so  long  as  you  shall  be  prosper- 
ous, you  will  number  many  friends.   Ovid. 

Note  1.— In  this  example  two  simple  sentences- (1)  'you  will  be  prosperous:  and 
(2)  *  you  will  number  many  friends  '—are  so  united  that  the  first  only  specifies  the  tirm^ 
of  the  second :  Yow  will  number  many  friends  (when  ?),  so  long  as  you  shall  be  pros- 
perous.   The  parts  thus  united  are  called  Clauses  or  Members. 

Note  2.— The  part  of  the  complex  sentence  which  makes  complete  sense  of  itself— 
mtUtos  numerabis  amicos— \a  called  the  Principal  or  Independent  Clause;  and  the 
part  which  is  dependent  upon  it—donec  eris  /c7ea— is  caUed  the  Subordinate  or  De- 
pendent  Clause. 

349.  A  Compound  Sen-tence  expresses  two  or  more  independ- 
ent thoughts : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Verg. 

■     350.  A  Declarative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  assertion : 
Miltiades  accusatus  est,  Miltiades  was  accused.   Nep. 

351.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a  ques- 
tion: 

Quis  loquitur,  who  spealsf  Ter.  Quis  non  paupertatem  extimescit, - 
wU  does  not  fear  poverty  f  Cic.    Quid  ais,  what  do  you  say  f  Ter.    Ec- 


180 


SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES, 


quid  ^  animadvertis  silentium,  do  you  not  notice  the  silence?  Cic.  Qualis  est 
oriitio,  tvhat  hind  of  an  oration  is  it?  Cic.  Quot  sunt,  how  many  are  there? 
Plaut.  Ubi  sunt,  where  are  they?  Cic.  Ubinam  gentium  sumus,  where  in 
the  world  are  ice?  Cic.  Visne  fortunam  experiri  meam,  do  you  wish  to  try 
my  fortune?  Cic.  Nonne  nobilitari  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  to  be  renowned? 
Cic.     Num  igitur  peccamus,  are  we  then  at  fault  ?  Cic. 

1.  Interrogative  Words. — Interrogative  sentences  generally  contain  some 
interrogative  word— either  an  interrogative  pronoun,  adjective,  or  adverb,  or 
one  of  the  interrogative  particles :  ^  -ne^  nonne^  num  ;  see  examples  above. 

Note  1.— Questions  with  -ne  ask  for  information:  Scr'iMtiie^  Ms  he  writing?'  Ke 
is  sometimes  appended  to  utrum^  num^  or  a/i,  without  affecting  their  meaning,  and  some- 
times inserted  in  the  clause  after  utrum  : 

Numne  ferre  arma  debuerunt,  ought  they  to  have  home  armsf  Cic.  Utrum  tacc- 
amne,  an  praedicem,  shall  I  be  silefit^  or  shall  I  speak  ?  Ter. 

Note  2.— Questions  with  nonne  expect  the  answer  yes :  Nonne  scrlbit,  *  is  he  not 
writing  ? ' 

Note  3.— Questions  with  nu7n  expect  the  answer  no:  Num  scrlbit^^ia  he  writing?' 

Note  4. — For  questions  with  an^  see  353,  note  4. 

2.  The  particle  -ne  is  always  appended  to  some  other  word,  generally  to 
the  emphatic  word  of  the  sentence,  i.  e.,  .to  the  word  upon  which  the  ques- 
tion especially  turns ;  appended  to  non,  it  forms  nonne  : 

Vlsne  experiri,  do  you  wisn  to  try  f  Cic.  Tune  id  veritus  es,  did  you  fear  tJds  ? 
Cic.  Omnisne  pecunia  soluta  est,  has  all  the  money  been  paidf  Cic.  Ilocinest 
(=  hocine  est^)  officium  patris,  is  this  the  duty  of  a  father?  Ter.  Unquamne  vidistJ, 
have  you  ever  seen  ?  Cic.    Nonne  volunt,  do  they  not  wish  t  Cic. 

3.  Sometimes  no  interrogative  word  is  used,  especially  in  impassioned 
discourse : 

Creditis,  do  you  believe  t  Verg.    Ego  non  potero,  shall  I  not  be  able  f  Cic. 

4.  An  emphatic  tandem^  meaning  indeed^  J^ray^  then^  often  occurs  in  inter- 
rogative sentences : 

Quod  genus  tandem  est  istud  gloriae,  what  kind  of  glory  is  that^  pray  f  Cic. 
Note  1. — Nani^  appended  to  an  interrogative,  also  adds  emphasis: 
Numnam  haec  audlvit,  did  he  hear  this^  pray  ?  Ter. 

Note  2. — For  Two  l7iter7'ogative8  in  the  same  clause,  and  for  an  Interrogative  with 
tantus,  see  454,  3  and  4. 

352.  Answers. — Instead  of  replying  to  a  question  of  fact  with 
a  simple  particle  meaning  yes  or  no,  the  Latin  usually  repeats  the 
verb  or  some  emphatic  word,  often  with  prorsus,  verd,  and  the  like, 
or  if  negative,  with  non : 

Dixitne  cauaam,  did  he  state  the  cause?  Dixit,  he  stated  it.  Cic.  Pos- 
sumusne  tuti  esse,  can  we  be  safe  ?    Non  possumus,  we  can  not,   Cic. 


1  Ecquid^  though  the  neuter  accusative  of  an  interrogative  pronoun,  has  become  in 
effect  a  mere  particle  with  the  force  of  nonne, 

2  See  311,  8,  foot-note. 
8  See  /J  7,  note. 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  SENTENCES, 


181 


Note  1.— Sometimes  the  simple  particle  is  used— affirmatively,  sdn?^  etiam^iia^  vera, 
certe^  etc.;  negatively,  non^  minim 8^  etc. 

Yenitne,  has  he  come  f    Non,  no.   Plaut. 

Note  2. — Sometimes,  without  an  actual  repetition  of  the  emphatic  word,  some  equi- 
valent expression  is  used : 

Tuam  vestem  detraxit  tibi,  did  he  strip  off  your  coat  ?  Factum,  he  did— Mt.^  done, 
for  it  was  done.  Ter. 

353.  Double  or  Disjunctive  Questions  offer  a  ch/)ice  or  alter- 
7iative,  and  generally  take  one  of  the  following  forms  : 

1.  The  first  clause  has  utrum  or  -ne,  and  the  second  an: 

Utrum  ea  vestra  an  nostra  culpa  est,  is  that  your  fault  or  ours?  Cic. 
Romamne  venio  an  hie  maneo,  do  I  go  to  Borne,  or  do  I  remain  here?  Cic. 

2.  Tlie  first  clause  omits  the  particle,  and  the  second  has  an,  or  anne : 

Eloquar  an  sileam,  sJiall  I  utter  it,  or  keep  silence?  Verg.  Gabinio  dicam 
anne  Pompeio,  to  Gabinius,  shall  I  say,  or  to  Pompey?  Cic. 

Note  1. — Other  forms  are  rare.* 

Note  2. —  Utrum  sometimes  stands  before  a  disjunctive  question  \vith  -ne  in  the  first 
clause  and  an  in  the  second :        ^  ^s. 

Utrum,  taceamne,  an  praedicem,  wmch^  shall  I  he  silent^  or  shall  T  speak?  Ter. 

Note  3. — When  the  second  clause  is  negative,  the  particle  generally  unites  with  the 
negative,  giving  annon  or  necne: 

Sunt  haec  tua  verba  necne,  are  these  your  icords  or  not  ?  Cic. 

Note  4.— By  the  omission  of  the  first  clause,  the  second  often  stands  alone  with  a», 
in  the  sense  of  or,  implying  a  negative  answer : 

An  hoc  timemus,  or  do  we  fear  this  f  Liv. 

Note  5.— Disjunctive  questions  sometimes  have  three  or  more  members: ' 

Gabinio  anne  PompCio  an  utrique,  to  Gabinius^  or  Pompey.,  or  both  ?  Cic. 

Note  6. — Disjunctive  questions  inquire  which  alternative  is  true.  These  must  be 
distinguished — 

1)  From  such  single  questions  as  inquire  whether  either  alternative  is  true: 
Solem  dicam  aut  lunam  deum,  shall  I  call  the  sun  or  the  moon  a  god  f  ^  Cic. 

2)  From  two  separate  questions,  introduced  respectively  by  num^  implying  a  negative 
answer,  and  by  an^  implying  an  affirmative  answer : 

Num  furis  ?  an  ludis  me  ?  are  you  mad  t  or  do  you  not  rather  mock  me  f  Hor. 

354.  An  Imperative  Sentence  has  the  form  of  a  command, 
exhortation,  or  entreaty: 

Justitiam  cole,  cultivate  justice.   Cic. 

355.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  has  the  form  of  an  exclama- 
tion: 

Reliquit  quos  viros,  what  men  he  has  left  /  Cic. 

1  Thus,  in  Vergil,  -ne  occurs  in  both  clauses,  also  -ne  in  the  first  with  seu  in  the  sec- 
ond.   In  Horace,  -ne  occurs  in  the  second  clause  with  no  particle  in  the  first. 

2  Cicero,  in  his  oration  Pro  Domo,  xxii.,  57,  has  a  question  of  this  kind  extended  to 
eight  clauses,  the  first  introduced  by  utrum  and  each  of  the  others  by  an, 

3  Observe  that  in  this  sense  aut^  not  an^  is  used. 


183 


SYNTAX  OF  SENTENCES. 


Note  1. — Many  sentences  introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns,  adjectives,  or  ad- 
verbs may  be  so  spoken  as  to  become  exclamatory : 

Quibus  gaudiis  exsultabis,  in  what  joys  will  you  exult !  Cic. 

Note  2. — Some  declarative  and  imperative  sentences  readily  become  exclamatory. 

Note  3.— Exclamatory  sentences  are  often  elliptical. 

II.    ELEMENTS     OF    SENTENCES. 

356.  The  Simple  Sentence  in  its  most  simple  form  consists 
of  two  distinct  parts,  expressed  or  implied : 

1.  The  Subject,  or  that  of  which  it  sjieaks; 

2.  The  Predicate,  or  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject : 
Clullius  moritur,  Cluilius  dies.^  Li  v. 

357.  The  Simple  Sentence  in  its  most  expanded  form  con- 
sists only  of  these  same  parts  with  their  various  modifiers : 

In  his  castris  Cluilius,  Albanus  rex,  moritur,  Cluilius^  the  Alban  king^ 
dies  in  this  camp.^  Liv. 

1.  The  subject  and  predicate  of  a  sentence  are  called  the  Pi^incipal  or 
Essential  elements ;  their  modifiers,  the  Subordinate  elements. 

2.  The  elements,  whether  principal  or  subordinate,  may  be  either  simple 
or  complex : 

1)  Simple^  when  not  modified  by  other  words ;  see  358. 

2)  Complex^  when  thus  modified  ;  see  359. 

358.  The  Simple  Subject  of  a  sentence  must  be  a  noun,  a  pro- 
noun, or  some  word  or  words  used  as  a  noun  : ' 

Rex  decrevit,  the  king  decreed.  Nep.  Ego  scribO,  /  write.  Cic.  Ibam, 
/  was  walking.  Ilor.  Vicimus,  we  have  conquered.  Cic.  Vidad  idem  valet, 
the  word  video  has  the  same  meaning.   Quint. 

359.  The  Complex  Subject  consists  of  the  simple  subject  with 
its  modifiers : 

Populus  Romdnus  decrgvit,  th£  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Cluilius  rex 
moritur,  Cluilius  the  kino  dies,  Liv.  Kex  Rutidorum^  the  king  of  the 
Rutuli.   Liv.     lAh^r  de  offidiSy  the  hook  o^  DVTi^^.   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  subject  is  thus  modified — 

1)  By  an  adjective  :  Populus  Romdnus. 

2)  By  a  noun  in  apposition  :  Cluilius  rex. 

3)  By  a  genitive  :  Rex  Rutulorum. 

4)  By  a  noun  with  a  preposition  :  Liber  de  offlcils. 

1  Here  Cluilius  is  the  subject,  and  moritur  the  predicate. 

2  Here  Cluilius^  Albanus  rex,  is  the  subject  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form,  and  in 
his  casty'ls  moritur  is  the  predicate  in  its  enlarged  or  modified  form. 

3  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  contained  or  implied  in  the  personal  ending.  Thus 
m  in  iba-m,  is  a  pronominal  stem  =  ego^  and  is  the  true  original  subject  of  the  verb.  See 
also  347;  368,  2,  foot-note. 


\M 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCES. 


183 


Note  2.— A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  or  identify  another  noun  or  pro- 
noun denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  is  called  an  Appositive;  as  Olullitis  rex, '  Clui- 
lius the  king.' 

Note  3.— Any  noun  may  be  modified  like  the  subject. 

Note  4. — Sometimes  adverbs  occur  as  modifiers  of  nouns : 

Non  Ignari  sumus  ante  malorum,  we  are  not  ignorant  of  past  misfortunes. 
Verg. 

360.  The  Simple  Predicate  must  be  either  a  verb,  or  the 
copula  sum  with  a  noun  or  adjective  : 

Miltiades  est  accHsdtus^  Miltiades  was  accused.  Nep.  Tu  es  testis,  you  are  a 
witness.  Cic.    Fortuna  caeca  est,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic. 

Note  1. — Like  sum,  several  other  verbs  sometimes  unite  with  a  noun  or  an  adjective 
to  form  the  predicate ;  see  363,  2.  A  noun  or  an  adjective  thus  used  is  called  a  Predi- 
cate Noun  or  Predicate  Adjective. 

Note  2. — Sum  with  an  adverb  sometimes  forms  the  predicate : 

Omnia  rect<c  sunt,  all  things  are  eight.  Cic. 

331.  The  Complex  Predicate  consists  of  the  simi)le  predicate 

with  its  modifiers : 

Miltiades  Athends  llberavit,  Miltiades  liberated  Athens.  Nep.  Lahorl 
student,  they  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes.  Me  rogavit  sententiam,  he 
asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  the  bridge  furnished 
A  PASSAGE  TO  THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  Bella  feUcitcr  gessit,  he  waged  wars  suc- 
cessfully. Cic.  I7i  Ms  castris  moritur,  he  dies  (where  ?)  in  this  camp.  Liv. 
Vere  convenere,  they  assembled  (when  ?)  in  the  spring.   Liv. 

1.  The  Predicate,  when  a  verb,  is  thus  modified— 

1)  By  an  Accusative  :  ^^^e/ifi^  liberavit. 

2)  By  a  Dative  :  Labbrl  student. 

3)  By  two  Accusatives  :  Me  rogavit  sententiam. 

4)  By  an  Accusative  and  a  Dative  :  Iter  hostibus  dedit. 

5)  By  an  Adverb  :  Feliciter  gessit. 

6)  By  an  Adverbial  Phrase  ;  In  his  castris  moritur. 

Note  1.— Still  other  modifiers  occur  with  special  predicates;  see  406,  409,  410, 
433, 

Note  2.— No  one  predicate  admits  all  the  modifiers  here  given.  Thus  only  transi- 
tive verbs  admit  an  Accusative  (371);  only  intransitive  verbs,  a  Dative  alone  (384, 1.); 
and  only  special  verbs,  two  Accusatives  (374). 

2.  A  Predicate  Noun  is  modified  Hke  the  subject : 

Haec  virtus  omniurn  est  regina  virtutum^  this  virtue  is  the  queen  of  all 
virtues.   Cic.     See  also  369,  notes  1  and  3. 

3.  A  Predicate  Adjective  is  modified — 

1)  By  an  Adverb  :  Satis  htimilis  est.  Tie  is  sufficiently  humble.   Liv. 

2)  By  an  Oblique  Case  :  Avidi  laudis  fuerunt,  they  were  desirous  of  praise. 
Cic.  Omni  aetdtl  mors  est  communis,  death  is  common  to  every  age.  Cic. 
Dignl  sunt  amlcitid^  they  are  worthy  of  friendship.   Cic. 

Note.— -Any  adjective  may  be  modified  like  the  predicate  adjective : 

Eques  Romauus  satis  litteratus,  a  Roman  knight  sufficiently  literary.  Cic. 


184 


SYNTAX  OF  NOUNS. 


CHAPTER  II. 
SYNTAX    OF    NOUNS. 


SECTION    I. 


AGREEMENT      OF      NOUNS. 

RULE  I.— Predicate  Nouns.» 

362.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the 
same  person  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  Case  :' 

Brutus  custos^  llbertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty,  Li  v. 
Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Orestem  se  esse 
dixit,  he  said  that  he  was  Orestes.    Cic.     See  360,  note  1. 

Note. — This  rule  applies  also  to  nouns  predicated  of  pronouns:  ^ 
Ego  sum  nuntiua^  lam  a  messenger.  Liv. 

1.  A  Predicate  Noun  with  diiferent  forms  for  different  genders  must 
agree  in  Gender  as  well  as  in  Case  : 

tjsus  magister^  est,  experience  is  an  instructor.  Cic.  llistoria  est  ma- 
tf'istra^  {not  magister),  history  is  an  instructress.   Cic. 

2.  Predicate  Nouns  are  most  frequent  with  the  following  verbs : 

1)  With  sum  and  a  few  intransitive  verbs — evado^  exsistoy  appareo^  and 
the  like : 

Homo  mdgm/s  evaserat,  he  had  become  (turned  out)  a  great  man.  Cic. 
Exstitit  vindex  llbertatis,  he  became  (stood  forth)  the  defender  of  liberty, 
Cic.    See  also  examples  under  the  rule. 

2)  With  Passive  Verbs  of  appointing^  making^  naming^  regarding^  cs- 
teeming,  and  the  like : 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servius  was  declared  king.  Liv.  Mundus  civl- 
tds  existiraatur,  the  world  is  regarded  as  a  state.   Cic. 

Note  1. — In  the  poets,  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  with  great  freedom  after  verbs  of  a 
great  variety  of  significations.-  Thus  with  audio  =  appell'Or: 

Rex  audlsti,  you  have  been  called  king  ;  i.  e.,  have  heard  yourself  so  called.  Ilor. 
Ego  diviim  incedo  reglna^  J  walk  as  queen  of  the  gods.  Verg. 


*  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  Rules  will  be  presented  m  a  body  on  page  324. 

2  For  Predicate  Genitive^  see  401. 

3  In  these  examples  custos^  rex.,  and  Orestem  are  all  predicate  nouns,  and  agree  in 
case  respectively  with  Brutus^  Servius.,  and  s5  (536). 

*  As  all  substantive  pronouns  have  the  construction  of  nouns;  see  183. 

^  Observe  that  in  usus  magister  est.,  the  masculine  form,  maghter.,  is  used  to  agree 
in  gender  with  usus ;  while  in  historia  est  magistra,  the  feminine  form,  magidra,  is 
used  to  agree  in  gender  with  historia. 


APPOSITIVES, 


185 


Note  2. — For  Predicate  Accusative,  see  373, 1. 

Note  3. — The  Dative  of  the  object  for  which  (390),  pro  with  the  Ablative,  and  loco 
or  numerb  (or  in  numero)  with  the  Genitive,  are  often  kindred  in  force  to  Predicate 
Nouns:  ho8t~i.,prb  Iwste,  loco  hostis,  numero  (or  i7i  numero)  hostium.,  'for  an  enemy,' 
or  *  as  an  enemy ' : 

Fuit  omnibus  bono.,  it  was  a  benefit  (lit.,  for  a  benefit)  to  all.  Cic.  Sicilia 
nobis  pro  aerdrib  fuit,  Sicily  was  a  treasury  (for  a  treasury)  for  us.  Cic.  Quaes- 
tor! parentis  loco  fuit,  he  was  a  parent  (lit.,  in  the  place  of  a  parent)  to  the  questor. 
Cic.  Is  tibi  parentis  numerb  fait,  he  was  a  parent  to  you.  Cic.  See  also  Predi- 
cate Genitive.,  401. 

3.  Predicate  Nouns  are  used  not  only  with  finite  verbs,  but  also  with 
Infinitives  and  Participles,  and  sometimes  without  verb  or  participle : 

Declaratus  rex  Numa,  Numa  having  been  declared  king.  Liv.  Caninio 
consule.,  Caninius  being  consul.    Cic.     See  431,  also  Orestem  under  the  rule. 

Note  1. — For  a  Predicate  Nominative  after  the  Infinitive  esse.,  see  536,  2, 1). 
Note  2. — For  an  Infinitive  or  a  Clause  instead  of  a  Predicate  Noun ;  see  639;  501. 


/ 


RULE  H.— Appositives. 

363.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  Case  with  the  noun  or 
pronoun  which  it  qualifies : 

CluTlius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies,  Liv.  Urbes  Karthdgo 
atque  Numantia,  the  cities  Carthage  and  Numantia.  Cic.  Saguntum, 
foederatam  clvitdtcm,  expugnavit,  he  took  Saguntum,  an  allied  town.  Liv. 
See  359,  note  2. 

1.  An  Appositive  with  different  forms  for  different  genders  must  agree 
in  Gender  as  well  as  in  Case  : 

Cluilius  rex,^  Cluilius  the  king.  Liv.  Venus  reglna,^  Venns  the  queen. 
Ilor. 

2.  An  Appositive  often  agrees  with  the  pronoun  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb : 

Hostis^  hostem  occldere  volul,  7,  an  enemy,  wished  to  slay  an  enemy,   Liv. 

3.  Appositives  are  kindred  in  force — 

1)  Generally  to  Relative  clauses : 

Cluilius  rex,  Cluilius  (who  was)  the  king.   Liv. 

2)  Sometimes  to  other  Subordinate  clauses,^  as  Temporal,  Concessive,  etc. : 
Furius  puer  didicit,  Fvrius  learned  when  he  was  a  boy  or  as  a  boy.   Cic. 

Junius  aedem  dictator  dedicavit,  Junius  dedicated  the  temple  when  dictator. 
Liv. 

4.  Bv  Synesis^ — a  Construction  according  to  Sense: 

« 

1  See  363, 1,  foot-note. 

a  ITostis  agrees  with  ego,  implied  in  volul,  '  I  wished ' ;  see  358,  foot-note. 

8  This  construction  is  sometimes  called  Adverbial  Apposition. 

*  See  Figures  of  Speech,  636,  IV.,  4. 


186 


GENERAL   VIEW  OF  CASES. 


1)  Possessives  admit  a  Genitive  in  apposition  with  the  Genitive  of  the  pro- 
noun implied  in  them : 

"IxxQ,  ipmis^  ^mlQitm^  your  o^^  friendship.   Cic.    Meum  «oZ^w^  peccatum, 
mi/  fault  ALONE.    Cic.    Nomen  meum  ahsentis^  my  name  in  my  absence.   Cic. 

2)  Locatives  admit  as  an  Appositive  a  Locative  Ablative  (4ii,  4jj5),  with 
or  without  a  preposition : 

Albae  constiterunt  in  urbe  opportiind,'^  they  halted  at  Alba,  a  convenient 
CITY.    Cic.     Corinthi,  Achuiae  urbe,  at  Corinth,  a  city  of  Achaia.   Tac. 

5.  Clauses.— A  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  clause, 
or  a  clause  in  apposition  with  a  noun  or  pronoun : 

I^os,  id^  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ought. 
Cic.  Omnes  interfici  jtissit,  munlmentum^  ad  praesens,  he  ordered  them  all 
to  be  put  to  death,  a  means  of  protection /or  tlie  present.  Tac.  For  clauses 
in  apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns,  see  499,  3 ;  601,  III. 

364.  Partitive  Apposition.— -The  parts  may  be  in  apposition 
with  the  whole,  or  the  whole  in  apposition  with  the  parts : 

Duo  reges,  ille  hello,  Mc  pace,  civitatem  auxerunt,  two  Ungs  advanced  the 
state,  the  former  by  war,  the  latter  by  peace.  Liv.  Ptolemacus  ct  Cleopatra, 
reges^  AegyptI,  Ptolemy  and  Cleojpatra,  rulers  of  Egypt.  Liv. 

SECTION    II. 

GENERAL   VIEW    OF    CASES. 

365.  Cases,  in  accordance  with  their  general  force,  may  be  ar- 
ranged and  characterized  as  follows : 

I.  Nominative,  Case  of  the  Subject. 

II.  Vocative,  Case  of  Address. 

III.  Accusative,  Case  of  Direct  Object. 

IV.  Dative,  Case  of  Indirect  Object. 

V.   Genitive,  Case  of  Adjective  Relations. 

VI.  Ablative,  Case  of  Adverbial  Relations.*^ 


1  Ipmia  agrees  with  tul  (of  you)  involved  in  tua;  solius  and  absentis,  Mvith  mel 
involved  in  meum.    The  Genitive  of  ipse,  solus,  unus,  and  omnia  is  often  thus  used. 

2  As  a  Locative  Ablative  is  a  genuine  Locative  in  sense,  there  is  no  special  irregu- 
larity here,  and  in  urbe  opportuna  may  be  explained  as  a  separate  modifier  of  the  verb: 
'  They  halted  at  Alba,  at  a  convenient  city:   Thus  explained,  it  is  not  an  appositive  at  all! 

3  Id  quod  debet,  lit,  that  wUch  it  owes.  Id  and  miimmentum  are  in  apposition 
respectively  with  nos  delectat  and  omnes  interfici,  and  are  best  explained  as  Accusatives. 
A  Nominative  apparently  in  apposition  with  a  clause  is  generally  best  explained  either  as 
an  appositive  to  some  Nominative,  or  as  the  subject  of  a  separate  clause. 

*  In  the  first  example,  ille  and  Idc,  the  parts,  are  in  apposition  ^vith  reges,  the  whole  • 
but  in  the  second  example,  reges,  the  whole,  is  in  apposition  with  the  parts,  'ptolemaeus 
and  Cleopatra. 

5  This  arrangement  is  adopted  in  the  discussion  of  the  cases,  because,  it  is  thought, 
it  will  best  present  the  force  of  the  several  cases  and  their  relation  to  each  other. 


W 


NOMINA  TIVE.—  VO  CA  TI VK 


187 


36 6.  The  Nominative,  Genitive,  Dative,  Accusative,  and  Vocative 
have  probably  retained  with  very  slight  modifications  their  original 
force  as  developed  in  the  mother  tongue  from  which  the  Latin  was 
derived.  * 

367.  The  Ablative  combines  within  itself  the  separate  offices 
of  three  cases  which  were  originally  distinct :  * 

1.  The  AUative  proper,  denoting  the  relation  from — the  place 
FROM  which, 

2.  The  Locative,  denoting  the  relation  in,  at — the  place  in  or  at 
ichich. 

3.  The  Instrumental,  denoting  the  relation  with,  by — the  instru- 
ment or  means  with  or  by  which, 

SECTION    III. 

NOMINATIVE.— VOCATIVE. 

I.  Nominative. 
RUIiE  HI. — Subject  Nominative. 

368.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nomina- 
tive :  ^ 

Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned.  Liv.  Patent  portae,  the  gates  are 
open.  Cic.  Rex  vicit,  the  king  conquered.  Liv.  Ego  reges  ejecl,  vos 
tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  ha7iished  kings,  you  introduce  tyrants.   Cic. 

1.  The  subject  is  always  a  substantive,  a  pronoun,  or  some  word  or 
clause  used  substantively ;  *  see  examples  under  the  rule. 

2.  A  pronominal  subject  is  always  expressed  or  implied  in  the  ending 
of  the  verb  :  ^ 

1  That  is,  in  the  primitive  Indo-Enropean  tongue,  from  which  have  been  derived, 
either  directly  or  indirectly,  not  only  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  Sanskrit,  but  also  the  English, 
French,  German,  and  indeed  nearly  all  the  languages  of  modern  Europe.  Upon  the  gen- 
eral subject  of  Cases,  their  original  formation  and  meaning,  see  Bopp,  I.,  pp.  242-519; 
Merguet,  pp.  17-117;  Penka,  Iliibschmann,  Holzweiesig,  Delbriick,  and,  among  the  earlier 
writers,  Hartung, '  Ueber  die  Casus,'  etc.,  and  Eumpel,  '  Casuslehre.' 

3  See  Delbruck,  '  Ablativ,  Localis,  Instrumentalis.'' 

8  For  the  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  see  536.  For  the  Agreement  of  the  verb  with 
its  subject,  see  460. 

*  For  clauses  used  substantively,  see  640. 

*  See  347.  Thus  moneO  means  /(not  you,  he,  or  we,  but  /)  instruct.  Indeed, 
every  verb  contains  a  pronominal  subject  in  itself,  and  in  general  it  is  necessary  to  add 
a  separate  subject  only  when  it  would  otherwise  be  doubtful  to  whom  the  implied  pro- 
noun refers.    Thus  rcgndvit,  '  he  reigned,'  is  complete  of  itself,  if  the  context  shows  to 


( 


188 


VOCATIVE, 


Discipulos  moneoi  ut  studia  ament,  I  instruct  pupils  to  love  (that  they 
may  love)  their  studies.  Quint.  Non  scholae,  sed  vitae  disciww^,  wb  learn 
not  for  the  school^  hut  for  life.   Sen. 

NoTE.—A  separate  pronominal  subject  may,  however,  be  added  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, emphasis,  or  contrast,  as  in  the  fourth  exam])le  under  the  rule. 

3.  The  verb  is  sometimes  omitted,  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied,  es- 
pecially if  it  is  est  or  sunt : 

Ecce  tuae  litterae,  lo  your  letter  (comes).  Cic.  Tot  sentcntiae,  there  are 
(sunt)  so  many  opinions.   Tor.    Consul  profectus  (est),  the  consul  set  out.   Liv. 

Note  1. — The  verb  facio  is  often  omitted  in  short  sentences  and  clauses: 

Melius  hi,  quam  vos,  these  have  done  better  than  you.  Cic.  Eecte  ille,  he  does 
rightly.  Cic.  Cotta  finem,  Cotta  closed^  lit.,  ma^e  an  end.  Cic.  So  also  in  Livy 
after  nihil  aliud  {amplius^  minus^  etc.)  quam, '  nothing  other  (more,  less,  etc.)  than '  = 
*  merely';  nihil  pr  a  eter  quam  ^  *  nothing  except' = 'merely ' :  Nihil  ahud  quam  steto- 
runt,  they  merely  stood  (did  nothing  other  than).  Liv. 

Note  2. — Certain  forms  of  expression  often  dispense  with  the  verb: 

Quid,  what?  quid  enim,  what  indeed?  quid  ergo,  what  then?  quid  quod,  what  of 
the  fact  that?  quid  plilra,  why  more,  or  why  shall  I  say  more?  ne  plura,  not  to  say 
more;  ne  multa,  not  to  say  much;  quid  hoc  ad  me,  what  is  this  to  me?  nihil  ad  rem, 
nothing  to  the  subject. 

Note  8. — For  the  Predicate  Kominative,  see  363. 

Note  4. — For  the  Nominative  as  an  Appositive,  see  363. 

Note  5. — For  the  Nominative  m  Exclamations^  see  381,  note  3. 

II.  Vocative. 
RULE  IV.— Case  of  Address. 

369.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put 
in  the  Vocative  : 

Perge,  Laeli,  proceed,  Laelius.  Cic.  Quid  est,  Catilina,  why  is  it,  Cati- 
line ?  Cic.  Tuum  est,  Scrvl,  regnum,  the  kingdom  is  yours,  Servius.  Liv. 
0  dil  immortales,  0  immortal  gods.    Cic. 

1.  An  Interjection  may  or  may  not  accompany  the  Vocative. 

2.  In  poetry,  and  sometimes  in  prose,  the  Nominative  in  apposition  with 
the  subject  occurs  where  we  should  expect  the  Vocative : 

Audi  tii,  populus  Albanus,  hear  ye,  Alban  people.  Liv. 

3.  Conversely,  the  Vocative  by  attraction  sometimes  occurs  in  poetry  where 
we  should  expect  the  Nominative : 

Qnibus,  Hector,  ab  oris  exspectdte  venTs,  from  what  shores^  Hector^  do  you  anx- 
iously awaited  coTne  t  Verg.  Made  nova  virtute,  puer,  a  blessing  on  your  new 
valor ^  hoy  (lit.,  be  enlarged  by ;  supply  esto).  Verg. 

whom  the  pronoun  he  refers ;  if  not,  the  noun  must  be  added :  Servius  regndvit^  lit.,  he^ 
Servius,  reigned,  or  Servius,  he  reigned.    In  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule,  ego  and 
vos,  though  ali-eady  Implied  in  the  form  of  the  verb,  are  expressed  for  emphasis.    In 
impersonal  verbs  the  subject '  it,'  in  English,  is  implied  in  the  personal  ending  t. 
^  See  preceding  foot-note. 


ACCUSATIVE.  189 

SECTION    IV. 

ACCUSATIVE. 

370.  The  Accusative  is  used  ^ — 

I.  As  the  Direct  Object  of  an  Action; 
II.  In  an  Adyerbial  Sense — with  or  without  Prepositions; 
III.  In  Exclamations — with  or  without  Interjections. 

Note  1.— For  the  Predicate  Accusative,  see  363  and  373, 1. 

Note  2. — For  the  Accusative  in  Apposition,  see  363. 

Note  8.— -For  the  Accusative  with  Prepositions,  see  433. 

Note  4.— For  the  Accusative  as  the  Subject  of  an  Infinitive,  see  536. 

I.  Accusative  as  Direct  Object. 
RULE  v.— Direct  Object. 

371.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Accusative : 

Deus  niundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.  Cic.  Libera 
rem  puhlicam,  free  the  republic.  Cic.  PopulT  Romani  salutem  defendite, 
defend  the  safety  of  the  Roman  people,    Cic. 

I.  The  Direct  Object  may  be — 

1.  An  External  Object,  the  person  or  thing  on  which  the  action  of  the 
verb  is  directly  exerted,  as  salUtem  above. 

2.  An  Internal  Object;  i.  e.,  one  already  contained  or  implied  in  the 
action  itself.     This  embraces  two  varieties  : 

1)  In  a  strict  sense,  the  Cognate  Accusative,  an  object  having  a  mean- 
ing cognate  or  kindred  to  that  of  the  verb : 

Servitiitem  serVire,^  to  serve  in  bondage  (lit.,  to  serve  a  servitude).   Ter. 

2)  In  a  freer  sense,  the  Accusative  of  Effect,  the  object  produced  by 
the  action : 

Librum  scribere,  to  write  a  book.   Cic. 

Note. — Participles  in  dus,  verbal  adjectives  in  bundus,  and  in  Plautus  a 
few  verbal  nouns,  occur  with  the  accusative  : 

Vitabundus  castra,  avoiding  the  camp.  Liv.  Quid  tibi  banc  curatiost 
(curatio  est)  ^  rem  =  cur  banc  rem  curas,  what  care  have  you  of  this?  Plant. 

1  The  Accusative  is  probably  the  oldest  of  all  the  oblique  cases  known  to  our  family 
of  languages,  and  was  therefore  originally  the  sole  modifier  of  the  verb,  expressing  in  a 
vague  and  general  way  several  relations  now  recognized  as  distinct.  This  theory  ac- 
counts for  the  great  variety  of  constructions  in  which  the  Accusative  is  used  in  Latin. 
See  Curtius,  'Zur  Chronologic,'  pp.  71-74;  Holzweissig,  pp.  34-38. 

a  The  pupil  will  observe  that  the  idea  of  servitutem,  'servitude,*  'service,'  is  con- 
tained in  the  verb  servire, '  to  serve,'  '  to  be  a  slave  or  servant.' 

3  See  37,  note. 


wMi<«M<«««ai.wiwaiiwawiiritiiwi»»«,wvii>;»awi^ 


190 


ACCUSATIVE. 


A  CCUSA  TIVK 


191 


„n  nl^  .°r^''  Accusative  is  generally-(l)  a  noun  with  an  adjective 

or  o  her  modifier,  or  (2)  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.  It  is  used  quite 
freely  both  with  transitive  and  with  intransitive  verbs,  and  sometimes  even 
with  verbs  in  the  passive  voice: 

dr^TallZV^'  '"  ^*''of"'  ""'=•   ^'°-     ^^™"'  «^'""'are  somnium,to 

'T.  o        Z^     HKEAM.   Plaut.     Saden,  peceat,  he  makes  the  same  m.s- 

Ho?    P   /v    Hoc  studet  ft«««,  A.  studies  this  one  thing  (this  one  study). 

Hor.    Perfidum  r.dens  Venus,  Venus  smiling  a  perfidious  smile.   Hor     Id 

Tl,.:  r    "  ■""n^'»"'-,  «,«  are  admonished  of  these  things  >  Cic 

iVi/i»/ motl  sunt,  <Ae'^  «,<.,.«  NOT  AT  ALL  mp.«<i.    Liv. 

Note  -Here  may  be  mentioned  the  following  Itindred  constmctions : 

;:^.  A  BrLK.x  ^"^"^ """"  ' '" ""  ^  '""^  ""•  ^*^^-  ^""''™  p^^^^-.  ^» 

III.  Special  VERBs.-Many  verbs  of  Feeling  or  Emotion,  of  Taste  and 
bMELL,  admit  the  Accusative : 

ffonores  dSsperat,  he  despairs  of  honors.   Cic.    Haec  gemcbant  thev  were 
.JW  0.^  THESE  THINGS.   Cic.    DUrimenta  rlA,,,  he  laljhs  at  1^.  Z^ 

the  oration  smacks  of  KSTiqmtY.  Cic.  «-«"^"t, 

Note  l.-Such  verbs  are:  despero,  to  despair  of;  doleO,  to  grieve  for-  aemn  to  si,rh 
over;  korreO  to  shudder  at;  /acW,«.,  to  weep  ov:r;  maere!,U,  mourn  o^r''  Zlr!r 
to  wonder  at;  rMeo,  to  laugh  at;  ««,".,  to  thirst  for.  etc.;  oleo,  to  have  the  odor  of'- 
sapio,  to  savor  of,  whether  used  literally  or  figuratively  >  ' 

«„,f.°^!  ^■~.^'"'''  """"^^  '°  ^''"°'  *'  *"  ^"elish,  are  sometimes  transitive  and  some- 

D":iorarr '"' "'  ""'''•  '""■''  ""'^''''  ""^'  '■'"'■  ^"^^"^^*^-  ""•^' «"'  ^" « 

Note  3.-Many  verbs  which  are  usually  rendered  by  transitive  verbs  in  Enirll,h 
:t™rrser3s'5."'"°'""^  ""'^™''  -^-  ^«---'o^^-  -  someZK" 

NoTE  4.-The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  often  omitted,  when  it  can  be  easilv  sun 
paed    «....  =  m<^eO  me, '  I  mo.e  (myself) ' ;  .ertit  =  .erUt  se. '  he  tu^nsTh  Z  ^  '  !^" 

Castas  n«n  movit,  he  did  not  move  from  his  camp.  Liv.    Jam  verter^rfortL 
fortune  Jiad  already  changed.  Uv.  ""^  verierat  lortuna, 

Note  5.— For  the  PasHve  Construction,  see  464. 

17.  An  Infinitive  or  a  Clause  may  be  used  as  Direct  Object- 


some  of  the  verbs  here  given  the  object  is  properly  a  Corjnate  Ac<^ative 


I 


372.  Many  Compounds  of  intransitive  verbs  with  prepositions, 
especially  compounds  of  verbs  of  motion  with  circum,  jper,  praeter, 
trans,  and  super,  take  the  Accusative  : 

Murmur  contionem  pervasit,  a  murmur  went  through  the  assembly.  Liv. 
FJienimi  transierunt,  they  crossed  (went  across)  tiie  Rhine.  Caes.  Circum- 
stant  sendtum^  they  stand  around  the  senate.  Cic.  Hereditdtem  obire,  to 
enter  upon  the  inheritance.  Cic.  Eas  ndtiones  adire,  to  go  to  those  nations. 
Caes.  L'ndam  innatare,  to  float  upon  the  wave.  Verg.  Tela  exire,i  to  avoid 
THE  WEAPONS.  Vcrg.     Gallos  praecedunt,  they  surpass  the  Gauls.   Caes. 

RULE  "VT.— Two  Accusatives— Same  Person. 

373.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding, 
SHOWING,  and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same 
person  or  thing : 

Hamilcarem  imperatorem  fecerunt,  they  made  Hamilcar  commander. 
Nep.  Ancum  regem  populus  creavit,  the  people  elected  Ancm  king.  Liv. 
Summum  consilium  appellarunt  Sendtum,  they  called  their  highest  council 
Senate.  Cic.  Se  praestitit  prdpugndtovem  libertatis,  he  shoived  himself 
the  champion  of  liberty.  Cic.  Flaccum  habuit  collegam,  he  had  Flaccus  as 
COLLEAGUE.  Ncp.  SOcratcs  totius  mundi  se  civem  arbitrabatur,  Socrates 
considered  himself  a  citizen  of  the  whole  world.   Cic. 

1.  Predicate  Accusative. — One  of  the  two  Accusatives  is  the  Direct  Object, 
and  the  other  an  essential  part  of  the  Predicate.  The  latter  may  be  called  a 
Predicate  Accusative  ;  see  363. 

Note  1. — Ilaheo^  'to  have,'  admits  two  Accusatives,  but  when  it  means  'to  regard,' 
it  usually  takes,  instead  of  the  Predicate  Accusative,  the  Dative  of  the  object  for  which 
(384),  the  Ablative  with  in  or  pro,  or  the  Genitive  with  loco,  numero  or  in  numero  : 
lildibrio  habere,  '  to  regard  as  an  object  of  ridicule ' ;  pro  haste  habere,  in  hosHbus 
habere,  loco  hostium  habere,  numero  or  in  numero  hostium  habere,  'to  regard  as  an 
enemy.'*    These  constructions  also  occur  with  other  verbs  meaning  to  regard  : 

Ea  honorl  habent,  they  regard  these  things  as  an  honor.  Sail.  Ilium  prd  hosie 
habere,  to  regard  him  as  an  enemy.  Caes.  Jam  pro  facto  habere,  to  regard  it  as 
already  done.  Cic.  In  ho%tium  numero  habuit,  he  regarded  them  as  enemies  (lit.,  in 
the  number  of,  etc.).  Caes.  Me  pro  derldiculo  putat,  he  regards  me  as  an  object  of 
KiDicuLE.  Ter. 

Note  2.— The  Predicate  Accusative  is  sometimes  an  adjective: 

Homines  caecos  reddit  avaritia,  avarice  renders  men  blind.  Cic.  Templa  deorum 
sancia  habcbat,  he  regarded  the  temples  of  the  gods  as  sacred.  Nep. 

2.  In  the  Passive  these  verbs  take  two  Nominatives— a  Subject  and  a  Predi- 
cate— corresponding  to  the  two  Accusatives  of  the  Active ; 

Servius  rex  est  declaratus,  Servins  teas  declared  king.  Liv.    See  also  363,  2. 


1  Observe  that  an  intransitive  verb  may  become  traneitive  by  being  compounded 
with  a  preposition  which  does  not  take  the  Accusative. 


\ 


192 


ACCUSATIVE. 


RULE  VII.— Two  Accusatives— Person  and  Tiling. 

374.  Some  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and 
CONCEALING,  admit  two  Accusatives— one  of  the  person 
and  the  other  of  the  thing : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  Jie  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Philosophia  nos 
res  omnes  docuit,  philosophy  has  taught  us  all  things.  Cic.  Auxilia  regem 
orabant,  they  asked  auxiliaries  from  the  king.  Liv.  Pdcem  te  poscimus, 
we  demand  peace  of  you.  Verg.  Non  te  celavi  scrmonan,  I  did  Jioi  conceal 
from  you  the  conversation.    Cic. 

1.  In  the  Passive  the  Person  becomes  the  subject,  and  the  Accusative  of 
the  thing  is  retained  : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion.  Cic.  Ego  sententiam  ro- 
gatus  sum,  /  was  asked  my  opinion.  Cic.  Art'es  edoctus  fuerat,  he  had  been 
taught  THE  arts.   Liv. 

2.  Two  Accusatives  are  generally  used  with  celd^  doced^  edoced  ;  often  with 
Tog6,  posed,  reposed;  sometimes  with  dedoceo,  exposco,  fiagito^  dro,  etc.,  con- 
sulo,  interrogo^percontor  ;  rarely  ^iXhmoned^  admoneO^  and  post ido. 

Note  l.—Celd,  *to  conceal,'  takes-(])  in  tho  Active  generally  two  Accusatives,  as 
under  the  rule,  but  sometimes  the  Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the 
thing  with  de;  (2)  in  the  Passive,  the  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  the  Ablative 
with  de: 

Me  de  hoc  libra  celavit,  he  kept  me  ignorant  of  this  book.  Cic.  Id  cclari,  to  be 
kept  ignorant  of  this.  Nep.  Celari  de  cdrndlid,  to  be  kept  ignorant  of  toe  plan. 
Cic. 

Note  2.—DoeeO  and  cdoced  generally  follow  the  rule,»  but  sometimes  they  take  tho 
Accusative  of  the  person  and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  de,'^  and  some- 
times the  Accusative  of  the  person  with  the  Infinitive  : 

De  sua  re  me  docet,  he  informs  me  in  regard  to  his  case.  Cic.  Utterls  GraecTs 
doctus,  instructed  in  Greek  literature.  Sail.  Socratem  >^i&?^  3  docuit,  he  taught 
Socrates  (with)  the  lyre.  Cic.    Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  bb  wise.  Cic. 

Note  8.— Most  verbs  of  asking  and  demanding  sometimes  take  two  Accusatives, 
but  verbs  of  asking,  questioning,  generally  take  the  Accusative  of  the  person*  and 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing*  with  de,  and  verbs  of  imploring,  demanding,  generally  the 
Accusative  of  the  thing  *  and  the  Ablative  of  the  person  *  with  a  or  ab  : 

Te  his  de  rebus  interrogo,  /  ask  you  in  regard  to  these  things.  Cic.  Victoriam 
ab  dils  exposcere,  to  implore  victory  from  the  gods.  Caes.  Id  ab  eb  flagitare,  to  de- 
mand this  FROM  HIM.  Caes. 


1  Other  verbs  of  teaching— emc?i5,  InstituO,  In/ormO,  InstruO,  etc.— generally  take 
the  Ablative  of  the  thing  with  or  without  a  preposition,  as  in  or  de;  see  Dictionary. 

2  Boceo,  in  the  sense  of  inform,  takes  de  with  the  Ablative. 
2  Supply  canere. 

*  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  person  is  often  omitted,  and  a  clause  often  takes 
the  place  of  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  of  the  thing.  For  examples  and  for  special  con- 
structions, see,  in  the  Dictionary,  cbnsulo,  interrogo,  rogo;  &\8ofiagit0,  m-O,  posco,  ex- 
poscO,  and  reposeO. 


ACCUSATIVE. 


193 


Mlative  of  i^,e  person. .it^.eo,J!a:IZal'      ^««.a.„..  „f  the  tM„g^  a«d  the 

Pacem  ab  RcmanU  petiernnt,  they  aOced  peace  feom  the  Eomav»    r,„,      .  ,■     -. 

ah  armcxs  postulure,  to  demand  something  feom  feiends    C^     an^\  ,      ^"""^ 

Ae  a^  OF  H,M  ..  PE,v.xE  (frou,  him  aloof)  those  ,™;,  e^.  ^Z     "  ""^  '"^  ^*"' 

375.  A  Neuter  Pronoun  or  Adjectite  as  a  Coffmie"  Accusative  oo 
curs  m  connection  with  a  Direct  Object  with  many  verbs  which  do  nt 
otherwise  talce  two  Accusatives :  ^^  •"** 

BSc  te  hortor,  /  «a:-^<,;^  ^ou  to  this,  /  j^jw  you  this  eOioHatl^r,    r;.      v  , 
«oneinur, ,.  „..  .....^,,,  ,^  ,„,3,  /„.^  J  ^.^_    stSlVcte^.f^.' 

376.  A  few  Compounds  of  ?>•«„.,  drcum,  and  «rf  admit  two  Accusa 
tive  ,  dependent  the  one  upon  the  verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition 

/A.r«».  copias  trajecit,  J,e  led  lis  forces  across  the  Ebeo.  Liv  Anim.'.m 
adverti  colu^ellam,  I  noticed  (turned  my  mind  to)  a  sma..  oolvJ;    cfc 

NoTE.-In  the  Passive  these  compounds  and  some  others  admif  ,n  a         .• '    . 
pending  upon  the  preposition :  °""'  ""  -^^ccusative  do- 

Praetervehor  ostia  Pantagiae,  /am  cam-e(f  6y  the  moitth  of  the  Pantan,-n,  v 
Locum  sum  praetervectus,  /Aat-.  been  carried  6y  the  place    4     ^''"(''S^as-  Ve,^. 

377.  In  roETBT,  rarely  in  prose,  verbs  of  clothing,  unclothing-tW«o 
cxuo,  c^ngOac<nngo,  indacO,  etc.-are  sometimes  used  rejlcively  in  thlpls 
s.ve,  like  the  Greek  Middle,  and  thus  admit  an  Accusative : 

Galeam  induitur,  Jie  puts  on  his  helmet    V<^ro.     T^,-.^•l     ^  .     . 

he  girds  on  his  useless  sword    Vert     vTr.l  .T'  I   '^"^'''^  '"'"''"'' 

ens  attired  in  long  ^o.Z  U.      ^-  ^  ""  '""^^™  '""^"^^^  ^'^^^'  '»«^- 

N0TE.-A  few  other  verbs  sometimes  admit  a  similar  constnirtinn  in  fi,„  .,„  . 
nhas,  they  browse  on  tub  forests.  Verg.  ''  Pascintar 

n.  Accusative  in  an  Adverbial  Sense. 
RULE  VUI.-Accusative  of  Specification. 

378.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative 
to  defane  its  application  :  * 

thi^^sf  !ri'  ""  "TV  """^  "'""'"''•  ""«^'  '"«'^'«i  »f  the  Aecusative  of  the' 


194 


ACCUSATIVK 


■  Capita  yelamur,  we  have  our  heads  veiled  (are  veiled  as  to  our  heads,  or 
havetnedouRH^ADs).  Yerg.  Nabe  A«m«-o-.  amictus,  ..7/.  his  shoui-ders 
Zeloped  in  a  cloud.  Hor.  Miles  f  ractus  rncr,^bra  labOre,  the  sodrer  wUh 
7Zs  shattered  .iih  faJo,- (broken  as  to  his  limbs).  Hor.  ^Aeneasj._deo 
simiMs,  Aeneas  like  a  ffod  in  ATFEXBATHCV^.   Verg. 

and  of  ranvneutlr  pronouns  and  adjectives-Ao<-,  Mud,  td,  qmd  (454  2) 
ii  ™L,  Xa,  rl%«a,  etc.    In  this  sense  it  s  oo"---  P- • 

TrrSc      liiqid  id  ,i«.'Berlberc,  to  .rite  .onMing  o.  this  k.nd. 
r    ASv/Sprobus,  IK  oa«.  T.n.os  (as  to  the  rest)  J- «  7-- 
%.  Plaut.    Quaerit,  5«W  possint,  he  inquires  no^pomr/nl  the;,  are.  Cacs. 
Quid  venlsti,  why  Aa»«  2/oit  come/  Plaut. 

RULE  IX.-Acctisative  of  Time  and  Space. 

379.  Duration  of  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  ex- 
pressed by  the  Accusative : 

Romulus  septcm  et  triginta  rOgnavit  annOs,  Romulus  -W^J^^'iZ 
YEARS    Liv     Cyrus  quadraginta  annos  natus  regnare  coep.t   Cyrus  began 
toZn  i2eu)  forty  Lrs  old  (having  been  born  forty  tears)   Cic.     Qum 
14™  £  pa  suum  ambulare,  to  walk  Jive  miles.   Cic.     Pedes  oetopnta 
Tta^, '0  I  eighty  rEET  distant.  Caes.     Kix  quattuor pc<f..  alta,  sno./our 

"T.t™o.  oTtZ.  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative,  or  by  the 
Accusative  with  a  preposition :  ^  p, 

Pa<.natum  est  horls  quinque,  the  battle  .cas  fought  five  hours.   Cacs.     Rr 
«nS^v^gintl  certatum  est,  the  .oar  ,vas  naged  for  twenty  vears.  Liv. 
9    Distance  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Ablative :     X.^.-^ 
'MUibus  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  castrls  consedit,  U  encamped  at  the  dis- 
tance of  six  MiLEs/row  Caesaris  camp.  Cacs. 

A  „^,.«,.w,llv  mcaninff  o/f,  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative . 

r:™birp:tut:S;  c::t:/pofu^^^        -<>  -.  -  -- 

OFF.  Caes. . — " 

genus,  something,  tliis  kind ;  fcc  Dracger,  I.,  p.  2.  ^, 


.j 


>• 


/ 


ACCUSATIVE. 


195 


RUUB  X.— Accusative  of  liimit. 

380.  The  PLACE  TO  which  is  designated  by  tlie  Accusa- 
tive :  * 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — ad  or  in  : 

^  Legiones  ad  urbem  addticit,  he  is  leading  the  legioris  to  or  toward  the 
CITY.  Cic.  Ad  md  scrlbunt,  ihej/  are  writing  to  me.  Cic.  In  Asiam  redit, 
he  returns  into  Asia.   Nep.     Confugit  in  aram^  hejled  to  the  altar.   Nep. 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition  : 

Nuntius  ROmam  redit,  the  messenger*  returns^  to  Rome.  Liv.  Plato  Ta- 
rentum  venit,  Plato  came  to  Tarentum.  Cic-  Fugit  Tarquinios^  he  fled  to 
Tarquinii.   Cic.     But —  i^'J^^ 

Note.— Verbs  meaning  to  collect^  to  come  tq^etji^  etc.— convenio^  cogO,  convocO, 
etc. — are  usually  treated  a8  verbs  of  motion,  and  tk^Se  the  Accusative,  generally  with 
a  preposition ;  but  verbs  meaning  to  place— locO,  WmokO,  ponO,  etc.— are  usually  treated 
as  verbs  of  rest,  and  thus  take  the  Ablative  (4f»5Jp*enerally  with  a  preposition: 

Unum  in  locum  convenire,  to  meet  in  owe  ^ ace.  Caes.  Copias  in  unum  locum 
cogere,  to  collect  forces  in  one  place.  Caes.  In  alterius  maml  vitam  ponere,  to 
place  one's  life  in  tue  hand  of  another,  Cic.  . 

1.  In  the  names  of  towns  i\i^i^cmative  with  ad  occurs — (1)  to  demote 
^o,  toward,  in  the  direction  of,  into^^  vicinitg  o/,  and  (2)  in  contrast  with 
d  or  ab: 

Tres  sunt  viae  ad  Mutinam,  tJ^^-^m'e  three  roads  to  Mutina.  Cic.  Ad 
Zamam  pervenit,  he  came  to  THE-^^iaciifiTY  of  Zama.  Sail.  A  Dianio  ad 
Sinopen,  from  Dianium  to  Sinope.   Cic.  '^ 

2.  Like  names  of  towns  are  used — 

1)  The  Accusatives  domum,  domSs,  rus: 

ScipiO  domum  reductus  est,  Scipio  was  conducted  no'M.*  Cic.  Domos  ab- 
ducti,  led  to  their  homes.  Liv.  Bus  evolare,  to  ?iaste}i^\NTo  the  country. 
Cic.     Domum  reditio,  a  return  home.   Caes.  » 

2)  Sometimes  the  Accusative  of  names  of  islands  and  peninsulas : 

Latona  confugit  D'elum,  Latona  fl^ed  to  Delos.  Cic.  Pi6rvenit  Chersone- 
siim,  he  went  to  the  Chersonesus.   Nep. 

3)  Rarely  a  few  other  Accusatives,  as  cxsequias,  mfitias,  etc. : 
Ille  Infitids  ibit,  he  will  deny  (will  proceed  to  a  denial).   Ter. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  before  names  of  countries, 
and,  in  the  poets,  before  names  of  nations  and  even  before  common  nouns : 

1  Originally  the  place  to  which  was  uniformly  designated  by  the  Accusative  without 
a  preposition.  Names  of  towns  have  retained  the  original  construction,  while  most  other 
names  of  places  have  assumed  a  preposition. 

2  See  also  the  Supine  in  inn,  546. 


.2 


1 


19G 


DATIVE. 


Aegyptum  profugit,  he  fled  to  Egypt.  Cic.  Ttaliam  venit,  he  came  to 
Italy.  Verg.  Ibimus  Afros,  we  shall  go  to  the  Africans.  Verg.  Lavinia 
venit  litora^  he  came  to  the  Lavinian  shores.   Verg. 

4.  A  Poetical  Dative  occurs  for  the  Accusative,  with  or  without  a 
preposition : 

It  clamor  caelo  (for  ad  caelum),  the  shout  ascends  to  heaven.  Verg.  Faci- 
lis  descensus  Averno,  easy  is  the  descent  to  Hades.   Verg.    See  385  4. 

III.  Accusative  in  Exclamations. 
RUIiE  XI.— Accusative  in  Exclamations. 

381.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  inter- 
jection, may  be  used  in  exclamations : 

Heume  miserum,  ah  me  unhappy!  Cic.  Me  miserum,  me  miserable/^ 
Cic.  O  fallacem  spem,  0  deceptive  hope!  Cic.  Me  caecum,  bli7id  that 
I  am/  Cic.  Fro  deorum  fldcm,  in  the  name  of  the  gods!  Cic.  Hanc- 
cine  audaciam,  tJiis  audacity  ?  ^   Cic.     But — 

Note  l.-An  adjective  or  Genitive  generally  accompanies  this  Accusative,  as  in  the 
examples. 

Note  2.— O,  iJieu,  and  heu  are  the  interjections  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ac- 
cusative, though  others  occur. 

Note  3.— Other  cases  also  occur  in  exclamations : 

1)  The  Vocative^v^'han  an  address  as  well  as  an  exclamation  is  intended : 

Pro  BBJictQ  Juppiter,  O  holy  Jj:t^it^^.  Cic.    ItiM\x  Dido,  unJiappy  ^Duyo.  Verg. 

2)  The  Nominative— vfhen  the  exclamation  approaches  the  form  of  a  statement: 
En  dextra,  lo  the  right  hand  (there  is,  or  that  is  the  right  hand)!  Verg.    Ecc6 

tuae  liiterae,  lo  your  letter  (comes) !  Cic. 

8)  Th-  Dative— to  designate  the  person  after  ei,  vae,  and  sometimes  after  ecce  en. 
hem ;  3  '    ^ 

Ei  mihl  WOE  TO  me.  Verg.  Vae  iihi,  woe  to  tou.  Ter.  Ecce  till  lo  to  you 
(lo  here  is  to  you  =  observe).  Cic.    En  tibl,  this  for  you  (lo  I  do  this  for  you).  Liv. 

SECTION   V. 

dative. 
382.  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  Indirect  Object,  and 
designates  the  Persok  to  or  for  whom/  or  tlie  Thikg  to 
or  FOR  WHICH,  anything  is  or  is  done/ 

»  See  Milton,  '  Paradise  Lost,'  IV.,  78. 

2  The  exclamation  may  of  course  be  interrogative  in  character. 

3  This  is  an  Ethical  Dative ;  sec  389. 

*  The  Indirect  Object  is  generally  a  perso7i,  or  something  personified.  Unlike  the 
Direct  Object,  it  is  never  contained  in  the  action  or  produced  by  it,  but  is  in  most  in- 
stances the  interested  recipient  of  it. 

^  Whether  this  was  the  original  meaning  of  the  Dative  is  not  known.    DelbrQck 


f 


DATIVE.  197 

383.  The  Dative  is  used— 

I.  With  a  large  class  of  Verbs  and  Adjectives ; 
11.  With  a  few  special  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

RULE  Xn.— Dative  with  Verbs. 

384.  The  Indirect  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the 
Dative.     It  is  used — 

I.  With  Iktrais'sitive  and  Passive  Verbs  : 

Tihl  servio,  /  am  devoted  to  you.  Plaut.  Serviunt  popmlo,  they  are  de- 
voted to  the  people.  Cic.  Impeind  parebant,  they  were  obedient  to  (obeyed) 
authority.  Caes.  Tempori  cedit,  lie  yields  to  the  time.  Cic.  Labor!  stu- 
dent, iliey  devote  themselves  to  labor.  Caes.  Mundus  deo  paret,  the  world 
obeys  God.^  Cic.  Caesari  supplicabo, /m7^  5w/>p?ica^<?  Caesar.^  Cic.  Nobis 
vita  data  est,  life  has  been  granted  to  us.  Cic.  Numitori  deditur,  he  is 
dclive^'cd  to  Numitor,   Liv. 

II.  With  Transitive  Verbs,  in  connection  with  the 
Direct  Object : 

Agros  plebi  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  common  people.  Cic.  Tibi  gra- 
tias  ago,  /  give  tJianJcs  to  you.  Cic.  Natura  hominem  conciliat  homing 
Nature  reconciles  man  to  man.  Cic.  Pons  iter  hostibus  dedit,  tJie  bridge 
gave  a  passage  to  the  enemy.  Liv.  Leges  civitatibus  suis  scnpserunt,  they 
prepared  laws  for  their  states.   Cic.  ^ 

1.  The  Indirect  Object  may  be — 

1)  The  Dative  of  Influence,^  designating  the  person  to  whotn  some- 
thing is  or  is  done  : 

Saryiunt populo^  they  are  devoted  to  the  people.  Cic.  Agros /?fe^  dedit, 
lie  gave  lands  to  the  common  people.   Cic. 

2)  The  Dative  of  Interest,^  designating  i\iQ  person  for  whom  something 
is  or  is  done : 

Sihi  Mcgarenses  vicit,  he  conquered  tJie  Megarians  for  himself.   Just. 

3)  The  Dative  of  Purpose  or  End,^  designating  the  object  or  end  for 
which  something  is  or  is  done : 

Eeceptui  cecinit,  he  gave  the  signal  for  a  retreat.  Liv. 

thinks  that  this  case  originally  designated  the  place  or  object  toward  which  the  action 
tended.    See  Kuhn's  '  Zeitschrift,"'  vol.  xviii.,  p.  81. 

1  Is  subject  to  God ;  will  make  supplication  to  Caesar. 

2  Observe  that  the  Dative  of  Influence  is  very  closely  connected  with  the  verb,  and 
is,  in  fact,  essential  to  the  completeness  of  the  sentence ;  while  the  Dative  of  Interest  and 
the  Dative  of  Purpose  are  merely  added  to  sentences  which  would  be  complete  without 
them.    Thus  Mcgarenses  vlcit  is  complete  in  itself. 


1 


198 


DATIVE, 


2.  Double  Construction. — A  few  verbs  admit— -(1)  the  Dative  of  the 
person  and  the  Accusative  of  the  thing,  or  (2)  the  Accusative  of  the  per- 
son and  the  Ablative  of  the  thing :  alicui  rem  donoirc^  *  to  present  a  thing 
to  any  one,'  or  aliquem  re  ddndre^  *■  to  present  any  one  with  a  thing ' :  ^ 

Praedam  mllitibus  donat,  he  gives  the  booty  to  the  soldiers.  Caes.  Ath6- 
mim^it^frumento  donavit,  he  presented  the  Athenians  with  grain.   Nep. 

Note. — This  construction  may  also  be  used  of  objects  which  are  in  a  measure  per- 
sonified^  or  which  \tivo\yq  persons  : 

Murum  urhl  circumdedit,  he  built  a  wall  around  the  city.  Nep.  Deus  animum 
circumdedit  corpore^  God  has  encompassed  the  soul  with  a  body.  Cic. 

3.  To  and  for  are  not  always  signs  of  the  Dative.     Thus — 

1)  To,  denoting  mere  motion  or  direction^  is  generally  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition  (380): 

Veni  ad  tirbem,  I  came  to  the  city.  Cic.  Delum  venimus,  tee  came  to 
Delos.   Cic. 

Note  1. — But  the  Dative  occurs  in  the  poets;  see  380,  4,  and  385,  4. 

Note  2.—MittO^  'to  send,'  and  scrlhD,  *to  write,'  take  the  Dative,  or  the  Accusative 
with  ad^  to  denote  the  person  to  whom : 

&cnhit  LaMtfWy  he  writes  to  Labienus.  Caes.  Scribes  ad  me^  you'will  write  to 
ME.  Cic. 

2)  For,  in  defence  o/,  in  behalf  of  is  expressed  by  the  Ablative  with 
prd ;  for  the  sake  of  for  the  purpose  of  sometimes  by  the  Accusative 
with  in  : 

Propatrid  morl,  to  die  for  one's  country.  Hot.  Dimicare  pro  libertdte^ 
to  fight  FOB  LIBERTY.   Cic.     Satis  in  usxtm^  enough  for  use.   Liv. 

4.  The  Dative  sometimes  depends,  not  upon  the  verb  alone,  but  upon 
the  Predicate  as  a  ivhole  :   /      ^l^^>^^^S. 

Tegimenta  galels^  milites  facere  jubet,  he  orders  the  soldiers  to  make  cov- 
erings FOR  THEIR  helmets.  Cacs.  Llberls  divites  esse  volumus,  we  wish 
to  be  rich  for  the  sake  of  our  children.  Cic.  Quis  huic  rll  testis  est, 
who  testifies  to  this  (lit.,  is  a  witness  for  this  thing).   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Dative  is  used  with  verbs  modified  by  satis,  bene,  end  male,  whether 
written  as  compounds  or  not : 

nils  satis  facere  (also  written  satisfacere),  to  satisfy  them.3  Caes.  Cui  bene  dixit 
unquam,  for  whom  has  he  ever  spoken  a  good  word  f  Cic.  Optimo  mro  maledlcere, 
to  revile  a  most  excellent  man.  Cic. 

Note  2. — A  Dative  is  sometimes  thus  added  to  the  predicate  when  the  English  idiom 
would  lead  us  to  expect  a  Genitive  depending  upon  a  noun  : 

In  conspectum  venerat  h^sttbus,  *  he  had  come  in  sight  of  the  enemy  (lit.,  to  the 

1  This  double  construction  occurs  chiefly  with  aspergo^  circumdo,  circuwfundo^ 
donD,  exuD,  impertio,  induO,  Inspergd,  interclndo. 

2  Galels  is  best  explained  as  depending  upon  tegimcnta  facere,  rather  than  upon 
facere  alone;  llberls,  as  depending  upon  divites  esse  volumus,  and  r^l  upon  testis  est. 

3  Literally,  to  do  enough  for  them. 

*  Hostibus  does  not  depend  at  all  upon  conspecium,  but  upon  the  entire  predicate, 
in  cfmspectum  venerat. 


*iyvA*«H^ 


>JtH^"^ 


^ 


f 


V 


DA  TIVE. 


199 


Y' 


y 


enemy).  Cic.  Caesari  ad  pedes  proicere,  to  cast  at  the  feet  op  Caesar  (lit.,  to  Caesar, 
at  the  feet).  Caes.  Mihi  horror  membra  quatit,  a  sliudder  shakes  mij  litnbs.  Verg. 
Urbi  fundumenta  jacere,  to  lay  the  foundations  of  {for)  the  city.  Liv. 

Note  3.— The  Dative  is  sometimes  very  loosely  connected  with  the  predicate,  merely 
designating  the  person  with  reference  to  whom  the  statement  is  true  : 

Tu  nil  pater  es,  you  are  a  father  to  him.  Tac.  Tridul  iter  expeditls  erat,  it  was 
a  journey  of  Viree  days  for  light-armed  soldiers.  Liv.  Est  urbe  egressis  tumu- 
lus, there  is  a  mound  as  you  go  out  of  the  city.^  Yerg. 

5.  With  Impersonal  Passive.— Verbs  which  admit  only  an  Indirect 
Object  in  the  Active  are  Impersonal  in  the  Passive,  but  they  may  retain 

the  Dative : 

Hostibus  resistunt,  they  resist  the  enemy.  Caes.  His  sententils  resisti- 
tur,  resistance  is  offered  to  these  opinions.  Caes.  Ne  mihi  noceant,  tJiat  they 
may  not  injure  me.  Cic.  Mihi  nihil  nocGri  potest,  no  injury  can  be  done  to 
ME  (lit.,  injury  can  be  done  TO  me  not  at  all).  Cic. 

385.  With  Special  Verbs. — The  Dative  of  the  Li- 
direct  Object  is  used  with  many  verbs  which  require  special 

mention.     Thus —  • 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  to  lenejit  or  injure^  please  or  displea% 
command  or  oley^  serve  or  resist^  and  the  like  : 

Sihi  prosunt,  they  benefit  themselves.  Cic.  Nocere  alteri,  to  injure 
ANOTHER.  Cic.  Zmoni  placuit^^  pleased  Zeno.  Cic.  Displicet  Tullo,  it 
displeases  Tullus.  Liv.  Cupiditatibus  imperare,  to  comma^id  desires.  Cic. 
Deo  pSrere,  to  obey  God.  'Cic.  Regl  servlre,  to  serve  the  kin^.  Cic.  Hosti- 
bus resistere,  to  resist  the  enemy.   Caes. 

II.  With  verbs  signifying  to  indulge,  spare,  pardon,  threaten, 
believe,  persuade,  and  the  like  : 

Sibi  indulgere,  to  indulge  one's  self.  Cic.  Vltae  parcere,  to  spare  life. 
Nep.  Mihi  ignoscere,  to  pardon  me.  Cic.  Minitans  patriae,  threatening 
his  country.  Liv.  Irasci  amicis,  to  be  angry  loith  friends.  Cic.  Mihi  crede, 
believe  me.   Cic.     lis  persuadere,  to  persuade  them.   Caes. 

Note  l.-Some  verbs  of  this  class  take  the  Accusative:  delectO,  juvo,  laedo,  offendo, 

etc  * 

Marium  juvit,  he  helped  Marixis.  Kep.     Non  me  fama  delectat,  fame  does  not 

delight  me.  Cic. 

Note  2.— For  ftdo  and  confldo  with  the  Ablative,  see  425,  1, 1),  note. 

Note  3.-The  force  of  the  Dative  is  often  found  onl/by  attending  to  the  strict  mean- 

~T5ther  examples  are:  A  PyKs  cuntiToco  alto  ^itTs^t,  they  are  situated  in  an  ele- 
vated place  as  you  come  (lit,  to  one  coming)  from  Pylae.  Liv.  Descendentibus 
inter  duos  lucos,  as  you  descend  (lit.,  to  those  descending)  betioeen  the  two  groves, 
Liv.  Exscendentibus  ad  templum  maceria  erat,  there  was  an  enclosure  as  you  as- 
cended to  the  temple.  Liv.  In  universum  aestimanti  plus  penes  peditem  robons  est, 
to  make  a  general  estimate  (lit.,  to  one  making,  etc.),  there  is  more  strength  tn  the 
infantry.  Tac. 


200 


BA  TIVR 


1.  Some  verbs  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative,  but  with  a 
difference  of  meaning :  '  * 

Cavere  aliquem,  to  ward  off  some  one;  cavjre  alicui,  to  eare  for  ,ome  one 
tonsulere  ahquem,  to  consult,  etc.  ;  alicui,  to  eousuU  pob  etc 
Metuero,  timere  aliquem,  <<,/«ar  y  alicui,  to  fear  fob  ' 

Pro^spicere,  prOvidere  aliquid,  to  foresee;  alicui,  to  provUe  fob. 

am  put  a  eheck  upon  ;  temperarc  alicui  (of  persons),  to  spare  .• . 

f bom tMsir'^r'  '"  «^"  ''""^  ""^  "^"-  ^-^P-    -^*'*''  «i^^^^""^»,  '"  <^»V^*«* 
FBOM  HIMSELF.   Cic.    Somnum  ,»«1  adimcre,  <<,  to>i:.  ,;..^  FROM  ME    Cic 

som';tfmestThV:r^^'  "''"  "''"^  ^"'  "'^'^''^^'  "'^'^^-^'  ^*^"  ^^ 

Severitatemmiscerer^m  to?,  fo  «„»7«  ,,,,„Vy  WITH  AFFABILITY.  Liv  Quid 
hmc>io;„.n.fac,as,W.«.„..yo„,<,<,,^„„(,,)^l^i,^,  ^.^     SeeTbefow 

4.  Dative  IN  PoETRv.-In  the  poets  and  in  late  prose-writers,  the  Dative 
^  used  much  more  freely  than  in  classical  prose.  Thus  it  ;ccurs  w  h 
more  or  less  frequency  with  the  following  classes  of  verbs  • 

or  1 7''^  ^""''"  "^'""""^  ^"''"^  "'  DirecUor^tor  the  Accusative  with  ad 

Xe^^^'rl^^T'T  T''}^"'  "^  °'  '"  OreumXv^e  send  many  do^  ^o  Oitctrs. 
Terg.    Caeh>  (for  ad  caelum)  palmas  tetendit,  he  extended  his  hands  xowARr„EATEv 
Verg.    It  damoroxelo,  the  shout  goes  to  heaven.  Verg.    See  also  SOsX 

2)  With  verbs  denoting  Separation  or  Difference '-instead  of  the  Ablativ,, 
with  ah  or  de,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter  /  Ablative 

Sfci!!!*'!^-?-^!"^'-^'''"' "  ^""""■"^  '''^'■'"''"<''  ^"^'^  "-^  «"  *«"'  "«OM  THE  FLOCK  Vere 
Scurrae  distablt  amicus,  a /We/Ki  w«;  differ  trou  a  .jester    Ifor     R.r^T"-*- J?* 

imB^rlands^fMen/romhisheadrVo^  '    ^^*^  ""P"'  ^'^ 

■  Many  other  verb»  take  different  constnictions  with  diSl^ent  meaninrr,.  .„„  „,,. 

Thns  with  arce^,  aisum,  differo,  dUsentii,,  clissideo,  auto,  etc.;  see  DictZI^. 


/^ 


DATIVE, 


201 


3)  With  verbs  denoting  TJnion^  Comparison^  Contention^  and  the  like» — 
instead  of  the  Ablative  with  cwm,  or  the  Accusative  with  inter  : 

Miscet  2  viris,  he  mingles  with  the  men.  Verg.  Concurrere  hostl  (for  cum  hoste),  to 
meet  the  enemy.  Ov.  Solus  tibi  certat,  he  alone  contends  with  you,  Verg.  Placitone 
pugnabis  amori,  icill  you  contend  with  acceptable  love  f  Verg. 

4)  In  still  other  instances,  especially  in  expressions  of  Place  : 

Haeret  later i  (for  in  latere)  arundo,  the  arrow  sticks  in  her  side.  Yerg.  Ardet 
apex  capitis  the  helmet  gleams  upon  his  head.  Verg. 

386.  Dative  with  Compounds. — The  Dative  is  used 
Avith  many  verbs  compounded  with — 

ad,  ante,  con,  de,  in,  inter, 

ob,  post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super: 

Adsum  amicis^  I  am  present  with  my  friends.  Cic.  Omnibus  antestare, 
to  surpass  all.  Cic.  Terrls  cohaeret,  it  cleaves  to  the  earth.  Sen.  Hoc 
Caesarl  defuit,  this  failed  (was  wanting  to)  Caesar.  Caes.  VoluptatI  in- 
haerere,  to  be  connected  ivitk  pleasure,  Cic.  Interfuit  pugnae,  he  partici- 
pated in  the  battle.  Nep.  Consilils  obstare,  to  oppose  plans.  Nep.  Llber- 
tati  opes  postferre,  to  sacrifice  wealth  to  liberty,  Liv.  Populo  praesunt, 
they  rule  the  people.  Cic.  Tibi  pro  sunt,  they  are  profitable  to  you,  Cic. 
Succumbere  doloribus,  to  yield  to  sorrows.  Cic.  Superfuit  patrl,  he  sur- 
vived his  father.   Liv. 

1.  Transitive  Verbs  thus  compounded  admit  both  the  Accusative  and 
the  Dative : 

Se  opposuit  liostibus,  lie  opposed  himself  to  the  enemy.  Cic.  Capiti  subduxerat 
ensem,  she  Itad  removed  my  sicord  from  my  head.  Verg.  See  also  Llbertdtl  opes 
postferre^  above. 

2.  Compounds  of  other  Prepositions,  especially  of  a6,  ex,  and  circnm, 
sometimes  admit  the  Dative  ;  while  several  of  the  compounds  specified  under 
the  rule  admit  the  Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition  :  3 

Sibl  libertatem  abjudicat,  lie  deprives  himself  (sentences  himself  to  tbe  loss)  of  lib- 
erty. Cic.  Mihi  timorem  eripe,  free  mb  from  fear  (lit.,  snatch  away  fear  for  me). 
Cic.  Pugna  assuescere,  to  be  accmtomed  to  (trained  in)  battle.  Liv.  Dicta  cum  factis 
componere,  to  compare  icords  with  deeds.  Sail. 

3.  Motion  or  Direction.— Compounds  expressing  mere  motion  or  direc- 
tion generally  take  the  Accusative  with  or  without  a  preposition :  * 

1  Thus,  with  ccypulO,  jungo^  misceO,  admisceo,  permisceo,  necto,  socio,  etc. ;  certo, 

contendOy  luctor^  pygno^  etc. 

2  Misceo,  as  a  transitive  verb,  occurs  with  the  Accusative  and  Dative  even  in  classical 

l)rose;  see  385,  8;  also  371,  HI.,  note  2. 

3  See  assuesco,  assuefacio,  acquiescD,  coed,  cohaereD^  colludo,  communico,  com- 
pfmo,  concordo,  conferO,  confllgO,  congruO,  conjungo,  consentio,  consto,  InsistO,  m- 
sideO,  Insum,  and  interdlco,  in  the  Dictionary.    See  also  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  406-426 

*  See  accedo,  accido,  addo,  adfero,  adhaerescO,  adhibeO,  adjungo,  adnitor,  ad- 
scrlbo,  adsum,  illiid^,  incido,  incumbo,  incurrO,  InferD,  offerO,  opponO,  in  the  Dictionary. 


IM 


ftJVw 


1 


r 


302 


DA  TIVE. 


DATIVE. 


303 


\1 


A  dire  o/rds^  to  approach  the  altars.  Cic.  Ad  consides  adlre,  (o  go  to  thk  con- 
suls. Cic.  In  bellum  insistit,  he  devotes  himself  to  the  war.  Caes.  Ad  omne  pericu- 
lum  opponitur,  he  is  exposed  to  evert/  peril.  Cic. 

4.  Several  compounds  admit  either  the  Accusative  or  the  Dative  without 
any  special  difference  of  meaning :  ^ 

Munltionihus  adjacent,  they  are  near  toe  fortitications.  Tac.  Mare  illud  ad- 
jacent, they  are  near  that  sea.  Nep.  Quibus  timor  incesserat,  whom  /ear  had  seized. 
Sail.    Timor  patres  incessit,  /ear  seized  the  /aihers.  Liv. 

5.  Many  compounds  which  usually  take  the  Accusative  or  the  Ablative 
with  a  preposition  in  classical  prose,  admit  a  Dative  in  poetry : 

Quid  contcndat  hirundo  cycnis  (for  cum  cycnls),  ichy  should  the  swallow  contend 
WITH  swans?  Lucr.  Contendis  Jlomero^  you  contend  with  Homer.  Prop.  Animis 
illiibl  nostrls  (for  in  animm  no8irb8\  to  sink  into  our  minds,  Verg. 

Note.— Instead  of  the  compounds  of  ad^  ante^  etc.,  the  poets  sometimes  use  in  the 
same  sense  the  simple  verbs  ^  with  the  Dative: 

Qui  haeserat  (=  adhaeserat)  Evandro.,  who  liad  joined  himsel/io  Evander.  Verg". 
Ponis  (=  apponis)  mihl  porcum,  you  offer  me  (place  before  me)  6wine''8  /iesh.  Mar- 
tial. 

387.  The  Dative  of  the  Possessor  is  used  with  the 
verb  sum  : 

Mihl  est  novercaj  I  have  (there  is  to  me)  a  stepmother.^  Verg.  Foiiti 
nomen  Arethusa  est,  the  fountain  has  (there  is  to  the  fountain)  the  name 
Arethusa.   Cic.     But — 

Note  1. — The  Dative  of  toe  Name  as  well  as  of  the  possessor  is  common  in  expres- 
sions of  naming :  nbmeii  ed^  nbmen  datur,  etc. : 

Sctpibnl  A/ricdnb  cognomen  fuit,  Scipio  had  the  surname  Africanus.  Sail.  Here 
A/ricdnb^  instead  of  being  in  apposition  with  cogmmien^  is  put  by  attraction  in  appo- 
sition with  Sclpibnl. 

Note  2. — The  Genftive  of  the  Name  dependent  upon  nomen  occurs : 

Nomen  Mercuri  est  mihl,  Ihaiie  the  name  of  Mercury.  Plant. 

Note  3. — By  a  Greek  Idiom,  volenSy  cupiens^  or  invUus  sometimes  accompanies  the 
Dative  of  the  possessor : 

Quibus  bellum  voleniibus  erat,  icho  liked  the  tear  (lit.,  to  ichom  wishing  the  icar 
was).    Tac. 

388.  The  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent  is  used 
with  the  Gerundive,  and  with  the  Passive  Periphrastic 
Conjugation : 

1  Such  are  adjaceo^  adulor^  antecedo^  anteeO,  cbnUor^  desperO  (also  with  de),  illii' 
do^  i7ice.dOy  Insulto^  invddo^  praecurrO^  praesto^  praestolor. 

2  Thus  /ero  for  ad/ero^  pro/erO  ;  haereO  for  adhaereo  ;  ponO  for  appono^  deponO^ 
impbno^  etc. 

3  The  Dative  with  est  usually  expresses  simple  possession  or  ownership^  like  the 
English  have.  HaheO  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  sense,  but  it  more  commonly  ex- 
presses some  of, the  shades  of  meaning  denoted  by  hold^  keep.,  regard,  and  the  like: 
arcem  habere,  'to  hold  the  citadel';  aliquem  in  ohsidione  habere,  'to  hold  or  keep 
one  in  siege' ;  pro  hoste  habere, '  to  regard  as  an  enemy.' 


i 


Proeha  conjugibus  loquenda,  battles  for  women  to  talk  about. ^  Hot. 
Suum  cuique  incommodum  ferendum  est,  every  one  has  his  own  trouble  to 
hear^  or  must  bear  his  own  trouble.    Cic. 

Note. — Instead  of  the  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent,  the  Ablative  with  d  ov  ab  \s> 
sometimes  used : 

Quibus  est  a  vobis  ^  consulendum,  /or  tchom  measures  must  be  taken  by  tou.  Cic. 

1.  The  Dative  of  the  Apparent  Agent  is  sometimes  used  with  the  com- 
pound tenses  of  passive  verbs : 

Mihl  consilium  captum  jam  diu  est,  I  have  apian  long  since  formed.^  Cic. 

Note. — Habeo  with  the  Perfect  Participle  has  the  same  force  as  est  mihi  with  the 
Participle : 

Bellum  habuit  indictum,  he  had  a  war  (already)  declared.  Cic. 

2.  The  Real  Agent,  with  Passive  verbs,  is  in  classical  prose  denoted  by 
the  Ablative  with  a  or  ab  ;'^  sec  415, 1. 

3.  The  Dative  is  used  with  the  tenses  for  incomplete  action,  to  designate 
the  person  who  is  at  once  Agent  and  Indirect  Object^  the  person  by  whom  and 
FOR  (to)  whom  the  action  is  perlbrmed  : 

Honesta  bonis  xirls  quaeruntur,  honorable  things  are  sought  by  good  men 
(i.  e.,  for  themselves).   Cic. 

4.  In  the  Poets,  the  Dative  is  often  used  for  the  Ablative  with  a  or  a^,  to 
designate  simply  the  agent  of  the  action : 

Non  intellegor  ulll.^  I  am  not  understood  by  any  one.  Ovid.  Eegnata  arva 
Saturnv.,  lands  ruled  by  Saturn.   Vcrg. 

389.  The  Ethical  Dative,  denoting  the  person  to 
whom  the  thought  is  of  special  interest^  is  often  introduced 
into  the  Latin  sentence :  * 

At  tibl  venit  ad  me,  but  lo,  he  comes  to  me.  Cic.  Ad  ilia  mihl  intendat 
animum,  let  him,  I  pray,  direct  his  attention  to  those  things.  Liv.  Quo  77iihl 
abis,  whithei*  are  you  going,  pray  ?  Verg.  Quid  mihl  Celsus  agit,  what  is 
MY  Celsus  doing  ?   Hor. 

1  The  Dative  -with  the  Gerundive,  whether  alone  or  in  the  Periphrastic  Conjuga- 
tion, designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  to  do  ;  while  with  the  compound  tenses 
of  passive  verbs  it  designates  the  person  who  has  the  work  already  done. 

2  Hero  d  vobls  is  necessary,  to  distinguish  the  Agent  from  the  Indirect  Object,  qui- 
bus ;  but  the  Ablative  with  d  or  ab  is  sometimes  used  when  this  necessity  does  not 
exist. 

3  The  Dative  with  the  Gerundive  is  best  explained  as  the  Dative  o/  Possessor  or 
o/  Indirect  Object.  Thus,  suum  cuique  incommodum  est  means  '  every  one  has  his 
trouble '  {cuique.  Dative  of  Possessor);  and  suum  cuique  incommodum  /erendum  est, 
*  every  one  has  his  trouble  to  bear.'  So  too,  mihl  consiUum  est, '  I  have  a  plan ' ;  mihl 
consilium  captum  est,  '  I  have  a  plan  {already)  formed.' 

■»  Compare  the  following  from  Shakespeare:  'He  plucked  me  ope  his  doublet  and 
offered  them  his  throat  to  cut.'  Julius  Caesar,  Act  I.,  Scene  IL  '  It  ascends  me  into 
the  brain.'  Henry  IV.,  Part  II.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III.  '  He  presently  steps  me  a  little 
higher.'    Henry  IV.,  Part  I.,  Act  IV.,  Scene  III. 


UlRS'. 


304 


DA  TIVE. 


) 


Note  1. — The  Ethical  Dative  is  always  a  personal  pronoun. 

Note  2.— The  Ethical  Dative  occurs  with  volu  and  with  interjections  : 

Quid  vdb'ia  vultis,  what  do  you  tcish^  intend,  meant  Liv.    Avuritia  quid  sibl  vult, 

what  does  avarice  mean  ?  or  what  object  can  it  havet  Cic.     El  mih\  ah  meI  Vei^. 

Vae  tlb%  woe  to  you.  Ter.    See  381,  note  3,  8). 

RULE  Xm.— Two  Datives— To  which  and  For  wliich. 

390.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  ob- 
ject or  END  FOR  WHICH — occTir  with  a  few  verbs : 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  verbs  : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men  (lit.,  is  to  men 
FOR  AN  evil).  Cic.  Est  mihl  curae^  it  is  a  care  to  me.  Cic.  Domus 
dedecori  domino  fit,  the  house  becomes  a  disgrace  to  its  owner.  Cic. 
Venit  Atticis  auxilio,  he  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  Athenians.  Nep. 
Hoc  illl  tribuebatur  Ignaviae,  this  was  imputed  to  Mm  as  cowardice  (for 
cowardice),   Cic.     Els  subsidio  missus  est,  he  was  sent  to  than  as  aid,  Nep. 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Ac- 
cusative : 

Quinque  cohOrtes  castris  pracsidio  relTquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the 
defence  of  the  camp  (lit.,  to  the  camp  for  a  defence).  Caes.  Pericles 
agrOs  suos  dOno  rel  publicae  dedit,  Pericles  gave  his  lands  to  the  republic 
as  a  present  (lit.,  for  a  present).   Just. 

Note  l.~The  verbs  which  take  two  Datives  are— 

1)  Intransitive  verbs  signifyinj^  to  be,  become,  go,  and  the  like :  sum,  flo,  etc. 

2)  Transitive  verbs  signifying  to  give,  send,  leave,  imptde.,  regard,  choose,  and  the 
like:  do,  dono,  ducO,  habeO,  mitto,  relinquo,  tribuO,  verto,  etc.  These  take  in  the 
Active  two  Datives  with  an  Accusative;  but  in  the  Passive  two  Datives  only,  as  the 
direct  object  of  the  Active  becomes  the  subject  of  the  Passive:  see  464. 

Note  2.— One  of  the  Datives  is  often  omitted,  or  its  place  supplied  by  a  predicate  noun : 

Ea  sunt  lisul,  these  things  are  or  use  (for  use).  Caes.  Tu  illl  pater  es,  you  are 
A  father  to  him.  Tac.    See  363,  2,  note  3. 

Note  3. — With  audiens  two  Datives  sometimes  occur,  dicto  dependent  upon  au- 
diens,  and  a  personal  Dative  dependent  upon  dicto  audiens,  and  sometimes  dicto  oboe- 
diens  is  used  like  dicto  audiens : 

Dicto  sum  audiens,  /  am,  listening  to  the  icord.  Plant.  Nobis  dicto  audiens  est, 
he  is  obedient  to  vs.  Cic.    Magistro  dicto  oboediGns,  obedient  to  his  master.  Plaut. 

RULE  XTV.— Dative  with  Adjectives. 

391.  With  adjectives  the  object  to  which  the  quality   -^ 
is  directed  is  put  in  the  Dative : 

Patriae  solum  omnibus  carum  est,  the  soil  of  their  country  is  dear  to  all. 
Cic.  Id  aptum  est  iempori^  this  is  adapted  to  the  time.  Cic.  Omnl  aetdtl 
mors  est  communis,  deatJi  is  common  to  cveri/  age.   Cic.     Canis  similis  lupo 


IX 


^^' 


DATIVE, 


205 


est,  a  dog  is  similar  to  a  wolf,   Cic.    Naturae  accommodatum,  adapted  to 
nature,   Cic.     Graeciae  utile,  useful  to  Greece.   Nep. 

I.  Adjectives  which  take  the  Dative  are  chiefly  those  signifying— 
Agreeable,  easy,  friendly,  like,  near,  necessary,  suitable,  subject,  useful,  to- 
gether with  others  of  a  similar  or  opposite  meaning,i  and  verbals  in  bilis! 

II.  Other  Constructions  sometimes  occur  where  the  learner  would  ex- 
pect the  Dative : 

1.  The  Accusative  with  a  Preposition :  (1)  in,  ergra,  adversus,  with  ad- 
jectives signifying  friendly,  hostile,  etc.,  and  (2)  ad,  to  denote  the  object  or 
end  for  which,  with  adjectives  signifying  usefiU^  suitable^  inclined,  etc. : 

Perindulgens  in  patrem,  very  kind  to  his  father.  Cic.  Multas  ad  res 
perutilis,  very  useful  for  many  things.  Cic.  Pronus  ad  luctum,  inclined  to 
mourning,   Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  without  a  Preposition  with  propior,  proximus  : 
Propior  montem,  nearer  the  mountain.   Sail.    Proximus  mare,  nearest  to 

tJie  sea.   Caes.    See  433  and  437. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a  Preposition  : 

Alienum  a  vita  mea,  foreign  to  my  life.  Ter.  Homine  alienissimum, 
most  foreign  to  or  from  man.  Cic.  £i  cum  Roscio  communis,  common  to 
him  and  Roscius  (with  Roscius).  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive:  (1)  with  adjectives  used  substantively;  (2)  with  adjec- 
tives meaning  like,"^  unlike,"^  near,  belonging  to,  and  a  few  others :  3 

Amicissimus  hominum,  the  best  friend  of  the  men  (i.  e.,  the  most  friendly 
to  them).  Cic.  ^^earavic/n  similis,  ?z/^^  Alexander  (i.  e.,  in  character).  Cic. 
Dispar  sul,  unlike  itself.  Cic.  Cujus  pares,  like  whom,  Cic.  Populi  Eo- 
mani  est  propria  libertas,  liberty  is  characteristic  of  the  Roman  people,   Cic. 

Note  l.—Idem  occurs  with  the  Dative,  especially  in  the  poets : 

Idem  facit  occidentl,  he  does  the  same  as  to  kill,  or  as  he  who  kills.  Hor. 

Note  2.— For  the  Genitive  and  Dative  with  an  adjective,  see  399, 1.,  note  1. 

BUIiE  XV.— Dative  with  Nouns  and  Adverbs. 

392.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and 
adverbs : 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative  : 

Justitia  est  obtemperatiS  4  legihus,  justice  is  obedience  to  laws.   Cic. 


1  Such  are  accommodatm,  aequalis,  alienus,  amicus,  inimicus,  aptus,  carus, 
facilis,  difficilis,  Jidelis,  Injidelis,  flniiimus,  grdtus,  ingrdtus,  idoneus,  jucundus, 
injucundus,  molestus.  necessarius,  7idtus,  Ignotus,  noxius,  par,  dispar,  pemiciosus, 
proplnquus,  proprius,  salutaris,  similis,  dissimilis,  dlverms,  vlclnus,  etc. 

2  The  Genitive  is  used  especially  of  likeness  and  unlikeness  m  characteb. 

3  As  similis,  dissimilis,  assimilis,  consimilis,  par,  dispar;  adflnis,  /Initimus, 
proplnquus;  proprius,  sacer,  communis;  alienus,  conirdrius,  Insuctus,  etc. 

*  From  obtempero,  which  takes  the  Dative. 


-v 


206 


GENITIVE. 


Sibi  responsio,  a  reply  to  himself.  Cic.  Opulcnto  homini  servitus  dura 
est,  serving  (servitude  to)  a  rich  man  is  hard.  Plaut.  Facilis  descensus  > 
AvernO,  easy  is  (he  descent  to  Avernus,  Vcrg. 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the 
Dative : 

Congruenter'  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature.  Cic. 
Sibi  convenienter  dicere,  to  speak  consistently  with  himself.  Cic.  Proxi- 
me  hostium  castris,  next  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.    Caes. 

Note  1.— In  rare  instances  the  Dative  occurs  with  a  few  nouns  and  adverbs  not  in- 
cluded in  the  rule: 

TribfiDlcia  potestas,  munimentum  lihertatl,  trihunician  poicer,  a  defence  for  lib- 
erty.  Liv.    Huic  una  =  una  cum  hoc,  with  this  one.  Verg. 

Note  2.— For  the  Dative  of  Gerundives  with  official  names,  see  644,  note  3. 
Note  8.— For  the  Dative  with  interjections,  see  381,  note  3;  389,  note  2. 


1 


SECTION    VI. 

GENITIVE. 

393.  The  Genitive  in  its  ordinary  use  corresponds  to  the 
English  possessive,  or  the  objective  with  of,  and  expresses 
various  adjective  rehitions.^ 

Note.— But  the  Genitive,  especially  when  objective  (396,  III.),  is  sometimes  best 
rendered  to,  for,  from,  in,  on  account  of,  etc. : 

Benpficil  gratia,  gratitude  for  a  favor.  Cic.  LaUrum  fuga,  escape  from  labors. 
Cic.    Ereptae  virginis  ira,  anger  on  account  of  the  rescue  of  the  maiden.  Verg. 

394.  The  Genitive  is  used  chiefly  to  qualify  or  limit  nouns 
and  adjectives/  though  it  also  occurs  with  verbs  and  adverbs. 

y         ^ '"  RULE  XVI.— Genitive  with  Nouns. 

"^  395.  Any   noun,   not   an    appositive,   qualifying  the 
^meaning  of  another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive :  ^ 

Catonis  orationes,  Cato's  oradojis.  Cic.  Castra  hostium,  the  camp  of 
THE  ENEMY.  Liv.  MoFs  Ilamilcaris,  the  death  of  Hamilcar.  Liv.  Deum 
metus,  the  fear  of  the  gods.  Liv.  Vir  consiliT  magnl,  a  man  of  great  pru- 
dence.   Caes.     Pars  popull,  a  part  of  the  people.   Cic. 

1  From  descendO,  which  admits  the  Dative  in  poetry;  see  385,  4, 1). 

2  From  congruens,  which  takes  the  Dative. 

^  The  Genitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  an  adjective,  and  means  simply  ofov  heJonging 
to.  Thus,^Vf7iX  equivalent  to  regius,  means  of  or  belonging  to  a  king.  On  the  origin 
and  'use  of  the  Genitive,  see  Ilubschmann,  p.  106;  Merguet,  p.  69;  Ilolzweissig,  pp.  26 
and  73;  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  447-493;  Roby,  II.,  pp.  llG-137. 

*  Doubtless  originally  it  limited  only  nouns  and  adjectives. 


GENITIVE. 


207 


Note  1.— For  the  Apposiiive,  see  363. 

Note  2.— An  Adjective  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Genitive : 

Bellica  gloria  =  belli  gloria,  the  glory  of  war.  Cic.  Conjunx  Uectorea  =  conjunx 
Hectoris,  the  wife  of  Hector.  Verg.  Pugna  Marathonia,  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Cic. 
Diana  Ephesia,  Diana  of  Ephesus.   Cic.    See  393,  foot-note. 

Note  3.— For  the  Predicate  Genitive,  see  401. 

Note  4.  —For  special  uses  of  the  Dative,  see  384,  4,  note  2. 

396.  The  qualifying  Genitive  may  be —  i 

L  A  Possessive  Genitive,^  designating  the  author  and  the  possessor  : 

Xenophontis  hbri,  the  boohs  of  Xenophon.  Cic.  Fanum  Neptuni,  the 
temple  of  Neptune.  Nep. 

IL  A  Subjective  Genitive,  designating  the  subject  or  agent  of  the  ac- 
tion, feeling,  etc. : 

Serpentis  morsus,  the  bite  of  the  serpent.  Cic.  Favor  Numidarum,  tJiefear 
of  the  Numidians.   Liv. 

Note. — The  Possessive  Pronoun  is  regularly  used  for  the  Subjective  Genitive  of 
Personal  pronouns : 

Mea  domus,  ?ny  Aowse.  Cic.    Fama  tua,  yoMr/awie.  Cic. 

III.  An  Objective  Genitive,  designating  the  object  toward  which  the 

action  or  feeling  is  directed : 

Amor  gloriac,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.  Memoria  malorum,  the  recollection 
of  sufferings.   Cic.     'Y^Q\\.m.xi\Q\j\x^.,  the  fear  of  the  gods.   Liv. 

Note  1. — For  the  Objective  Genitive,  the  Accusative  with  in,  erga,  or  adver- 
sus  is  sometimes  used : 

Odium  in  hominum  genus,  hatred  of  or  toxcard  the  race  of  men.  Cic.  Erga  vos 
amor,  love  toward  you.  Cic. 

Note  2.— The  Possessive  occurs,  though  rarely,  for  the  Objective  Genitive  of  Per- 
sonal pronouns : 

Tua  fiducia,  reliance  on  you.  Cic. 

IV.  A  Partitive  Genitive,  designating  the  whole  of  which  a  part  is 
taken : 

Quia  vcstrum,  which  of  youf  Cic.  Vitae  pars,  a  part  of  life.  Cic. 
Omnium  sapientissimus,  the  ivisest  of  all  men.   Cic. 

V.  A  Descriptive  Genitive,  also  called  a  Genitive  of  Characteristic, 
designating  character  or  quality y  including  valuc^  price^  size^  toeight^  age,  etc. 

Vir  maximi  consilii,  a  man  of  very  great  prudence.  Nep.  Mitis  ingenil 
juvenis,  a  youth  of  mild  disposition.  Liv.  Vestis  magni  pretil,  a  garment  of 
great  value.  Cic.  Exsilium  decem  annorum,  an  exile  of  ten  years.  Nep. 
Corona  parvi  ponderis,  a  crown  of  small  iceight.     Liv.     See  404. 

1  It  will  be  found  convenient  thus  to  characterize  the  different  uses  of  the  Genitive 
by  the  relation  actually  existing  between  the  words  united  by  it,  though  that  special  re- 
lation is  not  expressed  by  the  case  itself,  but  merely  suggested  by  the  meaning  of  the 
words  thus  imited. 


208 


GENITIVE, 


Note  1.— The  Descriptive  Genitive  must  be  accompanied  by  an  adjective  or  some 
other  modifier,  unless  it  be  a  compound  containing  a  modifier;  as  hi''Jusmodi  =  hvjus 
modi ;  trldul^  from  ires  dies ;  hidui^  from  duo  {bis)  dies. 

Note  2.— For  id  genus  =  ejus  generis^  omne  genus  =  omnis  generis^  see  378,  2. 

Note  3.— For  the  Descriptive  Ablative^  see  419,  II.,  with  note. 

VI.  An  Appositional  Genitiye,  having  the  general  force  of  an  Apposi- 
the  (363) : 

Virtus  continentiae,  the  virtue  of  self-controL  Cic.  Oppidum  Antiochlae, 
the  city  of  Antioch.   Cic.     Tellus  Ausoniae,  the  land  of  Ausonia.  Verg. 

397.  The  Partitive  Genitive  designates  the  whole  of  wliich 
a  part  is  taken.     It  is  used — 

1.  With  pars^  nemOj  nihil ;  with  nouns  of  quantity,  number,  weight, 
etc.,  as  modiuSj  Icgib^  talcntum  ;  and  with  any  nouns  used  partitively : 

Equorum  pars,  a  part  of  the  korses.  Liv.  Nihil  novl  (441,  2),  nothing 
NEW  (OF  new).  Cic.  Nihil  reliqui  (441,  2),  nothing  left  (lit.,  of  the  rest). 
Sail.  Medimnum  trltici,  a  bushel  of  wheat.  Cic.  Pecuniae  talentum,  a  talent 
of  money,   Nep.     Quorum  Gaius,  of  whom  Gains,   Cic, 

2.  With  Numerals  used  substantively :  ^ 

Quorum  quattuor,  fonr  of  whom.  Liv.  Equitum  centum,  a  hundred  of 
the  cavalry.  Curt.  Sapientum  octavus,  the  eighth  of  the  wise  men.  Hor. 
Unus  pontium,  one  of  the  bridges.    Caes. 

Note.— In  good  prose  the  Genitive  is  not  used  when  the  two  words  refer  to  the  same 
number  of  objects,  even  though  of  be  used  in  English : 

Qui  (not  quorum)  duo  supersunt,  of  whom  two  survive.  Cic.  Omnes  hominus,  all 
men.  Cic.    But  see  p.  200,  note  4,  with  foot-note. 

3.  With  Pronouns  and  Adjectives  used  substantively,  especially  with 
comparatives,  superlatives,  and  neuters :  * 

Quis  vestrum,  ivhich  of  you  ?  Cic.  Num  quidnam  novi,  is  fhere  anything 
new  (of  new)  ?  Cic.  Consulum  alter,  one  of  the  consuls.  Liv.  Prior  horum, 
the  foi-mer  of  these.  Nep.  GallOrum  fortissimi,  the  bravest  of  the  Gauls.  Caes. 
Id  temporis,  that  {of)  time,   Cic.    Multum  operae,  much  {of)  service,  Cic. 

Note  1. — Pronouns  and  adjectives,  except  neuters,  when  used  with  the  Partitive 
Genitive,  take  the  gender  of  the  Genitive,  unless  they  agree  directly  with  sorae  other 
word;  see  consulum  alter^  above. 

Note  ^.—  Uterque^  *each,'  'both,'  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective;  but  when  it  is 
combined  in  the  singular  number  with  another  pronoun,  it  usually  takes  that  pronoun  in 
the  Genitive: 

Uterque  exercitus,  each  army.  Caes.  Quae  utraq»e,  both  of  which.  Sail.  Utrlque 
nostrum  3  gratum,  acceptable  to  each  of  us.  Cic. 

1  Numerals  used  adjectively  agree  with  their  nouns:  mille  homines.^  'a  thousand 
men';  mllle  hominum.,  'a  thousand  of  men';  multl  homines^  'many  men';  mtiltl 
?iom.inuni^  'many  of  the  men.' 

2  As  JiOc,  id^  illud,  quid ;  multum^  plRs^  plurimumy  mi?uis^  minimum^  tantum^ 
quantutn^  etc. 

3  A  Partitive  Genitive^  because  a  pronoun. 


GENITIVE. 


209 


Note  3.— For  the  Partitive  Genitive,  the  Accusative  with  inter  or  ante,  or  the 
Ablative  with  ex,  de,  or  in,  is  sometimes  used: 

Inter  rcges  opulentissimus,  the  most  wealthy  o/ (among)  kings.  Sen.  Unus  ex  viris, 
one  of  the  Jieroes.  Cic.    Unus  i  de  legatis,  one  of  the  lieutenants.  Cic. 

Note  4.— Poets  and  late  prose  'writers  make  a  very  free  use  of  the  Partitive  Genitive 
after  adjectives : 

Sancta  dearum,  holy  goddess.  Enn.  Sancte  deorum,  0  holy  god.  Verg.  Festos 
dierum,  festal  days.  Hor.  Leves  cohortium,  the  light-armed  cohorts.  Tac.  Inclutus 
philosophorum,  the  renoicned  philosopher.  Just.  Reliquum  diel,  tJie  rest  of  the  day. 
Liv.  ^M\iMm  mi,  much  of  the  day.  Liv.  B.lWqavLm  noQt\&,  the  rest  of  the  night.  Tac! 
Strata  viarum  =  stratae  viae,  paved  streets.  Verg.  Vana  rerum  =  vanae  res,  vain 
things.  Hor.  Ilominum  ciinctl,  all  of  the  men.^  Ovid.  Cuncta  terrarum,  all  lands. 
Hor.    See  also  438,  5. 

Note  5.— The  muter  of  pronouns  and  adjectives  with  the  Partitive  Genitive  is  some- 
times used  of  persons : 

Quid  hoc  est  hominis,  what  kind  of  a  man  is  this?  Plant.  Quid  quid  erat  pa- 
trum  reus  dicen's,  you  would  have  said  that  all  the  senators  (lit.,  whatever  there 
was  OF  FATHERS)  Were  accused.  Liv.  Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  incedunt,  why  are 
80  MANY  MEN  (so  MUCH  OF  MEN)  comiiig  hither  f  Plant. 

4.  The  Partitive  Genitive  also  occurs  with  a  few  adverbs  used  sub- 
stantively :  2 

Armorum  adfatim  ^abundance  of  arms,  Liv.  Lucis  nimis,  too  much  {of)  light, 
Ovid.  Sapientiae  parum,  little  {of)  wisdom.  Sail.  Partim  copiurum,  a  portion 
of  the  forces.  Liv.  Quod  ejus  facere  potest,  as  far  as  (what  of  it)  he  is  able  to 
do.  Cic.  Nusquam  gentium,  nowhere  in  the  world,  Cic.  Hue  arrogantiae, 
to  this  degree  of  insolence,  Tac.    Maxirae  omnium,  most  of  all,  Cic. 

398.  Genitive  in  Special  Constructions.— Note  the  fol- 
lowing : 

1.  The  Governing  Word  is  often  omitted.     Thus — 

Aedes,  templum^  discipuhis,  Jtomo,  juvenis^  puer,  etc. ;  causa^  gratia,  and 
indeed  any  w^ord  when  it  can  be  readily  supplied : 

Ad  Jovis  {sc.  aedem),  near  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  Liv.  Hannibal  anno- 
rum  novem  {sc,  puer),  Hannibal.,  a  hoy  nine  years  of  age,  Liv.  Aberant 
bidui  {sc,  viam  or  spatium),  they  were  two  days^  journey  distant.  Cic.  Con- 
ferre  vitam  TrebOni  cum  Dolabellae  {sc,  vita),  to  compare  the  life  of  Trebonius 
with  that  of  Dolabella,    Cic. 

Note  1. — The  governing  word  is  generally  omitted  when  it  has  been  expressed  before 
another  Genitive,  as  in  the  last  example;  and  then  the  second  Genitive  is  sometimes 
attracted  into  the  case  of  the  governing  word : 

1  tJnus  is  generally  followed  by  the  Ablative  with  ex  or  de,  but  sometimes  by  the 
Genitive. 

2  Observe  that  in  this  case  the  partitive  idea  has  entirely  disappeared,  and  that  the 
construction  is  partitive  in  form,  but  not  in  sense. 

3  As  ^vith  adverbs  of  Quantity — abunde,adfatim,nimis,  parum,  partim,  quoad, 
satis,  etc. ;  of  Place— A?c,  hi'ic,  nusquam,  ubi,  etc. ;  of  Extent,  Degree,  etc. — eo,  hilc, 
quo;  and  with  superlatives.  As  adverbs  are  substantives  or  adjectives  in  origin,  it  is 
not  strange  that  they  are  thus  used  with  the  Genitive. 


/ 


210 


GENITIVE. 


GENITIVE. 


211 


Natura  hominis  beluTs  (for  beluaricm  naturae)  antccedit,  the  nature  of  man  sur- 
passes (that  of)  the  brutes.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  many  cases  where  we  supply  son^  daughter^  husband^  uife^  the  ellipsis 
is  only  apparent,  the  Genitive  depending  directly  on  the  proper  noun  expressed : 

Hasdrubal  Gisconis,  Gisco's  Hasdrubal,  or  Ilasdrubal  the  son  of  Gisco.  Liv.  Hec- 
toris  Andromache,  Hector's  Andromache^  or  Andromache  the  wife  of  Hector.  Ycrg. 

2.  Two  Genitives  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun.  One  is 
generally  subjective^  the  other  either  objective  or  descriptive  : 

Memml  odium  potentiae,  Memmius^s  hatred  of  power.  Sail.  Ilelvetiorum 
injuriae  populi  KomanI,  the  wrongs  done  by  the  Ilelvetii  to  the  Roman  people, 
Caes.  Superiorum  dierum  SabinI  cunctatio,  the  delay  of  Sabinus  during  (lit., 
of)  the  preceding  days,  Caes. 

8.  A  Genitive  sometimes  accompanies  a  Possessive,  especially  the 
Genitive  of  ipsc^  solus^  unus^  or  omnis : 

Tua  ipsius  amicitia,!  your  own  friendship,  Cic.  Meum  solius  peccatum, 
my  fault  alone.  Cic.    Nomen  meum  absentis,  my  name  in  my  absence,  Cic. 

4.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  imtar,  *  likeness,'  *  image,'  in  the  sense  of 
as  large  as^  of  the  size  of  equal  to : 

Instar  mentis  equus,  a  horse  of  the  size  of  a  mountain,  Verg. 

5.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  prldie^  posiridie^  <??yo,  and  teiius :  ^ 

Pridie  ejus  diei,  on  the  day  before  that  day,  Caes.  Postrldie  ejus  diei,  on 
the  day  after  that  day,  Caes.  Virtutis  ergo,  on  account  of  virtue,  Cic.  Lmn- 
borum  tonus,  as  far  as  the  loins.   Cic.     For  tenus  with  the  Ablative,  see  434. 

RULE  XVH.— Genitive  with  Adjectives. 

399.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete 
tlieir  meaning : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise.  Cic.  Otii  cupidus,  desirous  of  leis- 
ure. Liv.  Conscius  conjurationis,  cognizant  of  the  conspiracy.  Sail. 
Amans  sui  virtus,  virtue  fond  of  itself.  Cic.  Efficiens  voluptatis,  produc- 
tive of  pleasure,   Cic.     Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory,   Liv. 

Note. — This  Genitive  corresponds  to  the  Objective  Genitive  with  nouns : 
Aoior  gloriae,  the  love  of  glory.  Cic.     Appetens  gloriae,  desiroics  of  (eager  for) 
glory.  Cic. 

I.  The  Genitive  is  used  with  adjectives  denoting — 

1.  Desire  or  Aversion  :  ^ 


1  Jpslus  may  be  explained  as  agreeing  with  iul  (of  you),  involved  in  tua,  and  solius 
and  absentis  as  agreeing  with  mel  (of  me),  involved  in  meum, 

2  These  words  are  strictly  nouns,  and,  as  such,  govern  the  Genitive.  Pridie  and 
postrldie  are  Locatives;  ergo  is  an  Ablative,  and  tenus,  an  Accusative;  see  304;  307, 
note  1. 

3  Such  are— (1)  avidus,  cupidus,  studiosus;  fastldiosus,  etc.;  (2)  gndrus,  igndrus, 
consultus,  conscius,  insciuft,  nescius,  certus,  incertus;  providus,  prUdens,  imprii- 


Contentionis  cupidus,  desirous  of  contention.  Cic.  Sapientiae  studiOsus,  stu- 
dious of  (student  of)  wisdom.  Cic.    Terrae  fastldiosus,  weary  of  the  land,  Hor. 

2.  Knowledge,  Skill,  Recollection,  with  their  contraries :  ^ 

Eei  gnarus,  acquainted  with  the  thing.  Cic.  Prudens  rei  mllitaris,  sHlled 
in  military  science.  Nep.  Peritus  belli,  sHIled  in  war,  Nep.  Insuetus 
laboris,  unaccustomed  to  labor,  Caes.  Gloriae  memor,  mindful  of  glory, 
Liv.     IrniaQniorhQriQ^Qu.^  forgetful  of  kindiiess,   Cic. 

3.  Participation,  Guilt,  Fulness,  Mastery,  with  their  contraries :  ^ 

Adfinis  culpae,  sharing  the  fault.  Cic.  Eationis  particeps,  endowed  with 
(sharing)  reason.  Cic.  Eationis  expers,  destitute  of  reason,  Cic.  Manifestus 
rerum  capitalium,  convicted  of  capital  crimes.  Sail.  Vita  metus  plena,  a  life 
full  of  fear.  Cic.  ^IqI  ^ot^n^  Q\xm^  I  am  master  of  myself  Liv.  Virtutis 
compos,  capable  of  virtue.   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Genitive  and  Dative  sometimes  occur  with  the  same  adjective : 

Mens  sib!  conscia  recti,  a  mind  conscious  to  itself  of  recUtude.  Verg.  Sibi  conscii 
culpae,  conscious  to  themselves  of  fault.  Cic. 

Note  2. — For  the  Genitive  with  adjectives  used  substantively,  and  with  adjectives 
meaning  like,  unlike,  near,  belonging  to,  etc.,  see  391,  II.,  4. 

Note  3. — For  the  Genitive  with  dlgnus  and  indlgnus,  see  421,  note  3. 

IL  The  Genitive  is  used  with  Verbals  in  ax,  and  with  Present  Par- 
ticiples used  adjectively : 

Virtutum  ferax,  productive  of  virtues.  Liv.  Tenax  propositi,  toiacious 
(steadfast)  of  purpose.  Hor.  Amans  patriae,  fond  of  his  country.^  Cic. 
Fugiens  laboris,  shunning  labor,    Caes. 

IIL  In  i\\^  poets  and  in  late  prose  luriters,  especially  in  Tacitus,  the  Gen- 
itive is  used — 

1.  With  adjectives  of  almost  every  variety  of  signification,  simply  to 
defne  their  application  :  * 

AevI  maturus,  mature  in  age,  Verg.  Ingens  virium,  mighty  in  strength. 
Sail.  SgrI  studiorum,  late  in  studies,  Hor.  Integer  aevi,  unimpaired  in  age 
(i.  e. ,  in  the  bloom  of  youth).  Verg.  Aeger  animi,*  afflicted  in  spirit.  Liv.  Anx- 
ius  animi,'»  anxious  in  mind.  Sail.    Fidens  animi,  confident  in  spirit,  Verg. 

2.  With  a  few  adjectives,  to  denote  cause: 

Laetus  laborum,  pleased  with  the  labors,  Verg.  Notus  animI  paterni,  dis- 
tinguished for  paternal  affection ,   Hor. 

dens;  peritus,  imperitus,  rudis,  insuetus;  memor,  immemor,  etc.;  (S)  adfinis,  con- 
sors,  exsors,  expers,  particeps,  manifestus,  noxius;  plenus,  fertilis,  refertus,  eglnus^ 
inops,  'vactius;  potens,  impotens,  compos,  etc 

1  See  foot-note  3,  page  210. 

2  Amans  patriae,  *fond  of  his  countrjV  represents  the  affection  as  permanent  VLn^ 
constant;  whereas  the  participial  construction,  amans  patriain,  'loving  his  country,' 
designates  a  j)<^vticular  instance  or  act, 

3  Like  the  Ablative  of  Specification;  see  434.  For  votl  reus,  'bound  to  fulfil  a 
vow,'  see  410,  III.,  note  2. 

*  Probably  a  Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  similar  instances  in  the  plural. 


^-, 


213 


GENITIVE, 


GENITIVE, 


213 


400.  Adjectives  which  usually  take  the  Genitive,  sometimes 
admit  other  constructions : 

1.  The  Dative  : 

Manus  subitis  avidac,  hands  ready  for  sudden  events.  Tac.  InsuCtus  mori- 
bus  Romanis,  unaccustomed  to  Roman  manners.  Liv.  Facmori  mens  conscia, 
a  mind  conscious  of  crime.   Clc.    See  391. 

2.  The  Accusative  with  a  preposition  : 

Insuetus  ad  ptignam,  unaccustomed  to  battle.  Liv.  Fertilis  ad  omnia,  pro- 
ductive for  all  things.  Plin.    Avidus  in  novas  rOs,  eager  for  new  things. '  Liv. 

3.  The  Ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition  : 

Prtidens  in  jure  civlli,  learned  in  civil  laio.  Cic.  His  de  rebus  conscius, 
aivare  of  these  things.  Cic.  Vacuus  de  defensoribus,  destitute  of  defenders, 
Caes.  Curls  \iXQ\xnQ,  free  from  cares.  Cic.  Eefertus  bonis,  replete  with  bless- 
ings.  Cic.    See  414,  IIL 

RULE  XVIII.-Predicate  Genitive. 

401.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a 
different  person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy.»  Liv.  Senatus 
Hannibalis  erat,  the  senate  teas  Hannibal's  (i.  e.,  in  his  interest).  Liv. 
Judicis  est  verum  sequT,  to  follow  the  truth  is  the  duty  op  a  judge.^  Cic. 
Parvi  pretii  est,  it  is  of  small  value.  Cic.  Tyrus  mare  suae  dicionis  ^  fecit, 
Tyre  brought  the  sea  under  (lit.,  made  the  sea  of)  her  sway.    Curt. 

Note  1.— For  a  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person  or  thine 
866  362;  373,1.  *" 

Note  2.— A  Predicate  Genitive  is  often  nearly  or  quite  equivalent  to  a  Predicate 
adjective  (360,  note  1):  hominis  est  =  Jmmdwwni  est,  *it  is  the  mark  of  a  man/  'is 
human*;  stultl  est  =  8tultum  est,  'it  is  foolish.''  The  Genitive  is  the  regular  construc- 
tion in  adjectives  of  one  ending :  sapientis  est  (for  sapiens  est),  'it  is  the  part  of  a  wise 
man,^ '  is  wise.* 

Note  3.— Possessive  pronouns  in  agreement  with  the  subject  supply  the  place  of  the 
Predicate  Genitive  *  of  personal  pronouns  : 

Est  tuura  (not  tui)  vidcre,  it  is  your  ditty  to  see.  Cic. 

Note  4.—Aeqm,  bonl,  and  riliqul  occur  as  Predicate  Genitives  in  such  expressions 
as  aequlfacere,  aequl  bonlque  facer e,  bonl  cdnsulere,  'to  take  in  good  part,'  and 
riUqul  facer e,  '  to  leave ' : 

Aequl  bonlque  facio,  /  take  it  in  good  part.  Ter.  MiUtes  nihU  rgliqul  vlctls  leccre, 
the  soldiers  left  nothing  to  the  vanquished.  Sail. 


^  Literally,  were  of  the  enemy,  or  xcere  the  enemy's. 

2  Literally,  is  of  a  judge. 

3  Here  dicionis,  denoting  a  different  thing  from  mare,  of  which  it  is  predicated,  is 
put  in  the  Genitive. 

*  This  is  another  illustration  of  the  close  relationship  between  a  Predicate  Genitive 
and  a  Predicate  Adjective ;  see  also  note  2. 


402.  The  Predicate  Genitive  is  generally  Possessive  or  De- 
scriptive^ rarely  Partitive : 

Hacc  hostium  erant,  these  things  ivere  of  (belonged  to)  the  enemy.  Liv. 
Est  imperdtoris  superare,  it  is  the  duty  of  a  commander  to  conquer.  Caes. 
Summae  facultatis  est,  he  is  (a  man)  of  the  highest  ability.  Cic.  Opera 
vciiigm  ixxit^  the  assistance  was  of  great  value.  Nep.  Fies  nobilium  fontium,i 
you  will  become  one  of  the  noble  fountains.   Hor. 

403.  The  Predicate  Genitive  occurs  most  frequently  with 
sum  and  facio^  but  sometimes  also  with  verbs  of  seeming^  regard- 
ing, etc. : 

Oram  Romanae  dicionis  fecit,  he  h'ought  the  coast  under  (made  the  coast 
of)  Roman  rule.  Liv.  Hominis  videtur,  it  seems  to  be  the  mark  of  a  man. 
Cic.     See  also  examples  under  401. 

Note.— Transitive  verbs  of  this  class  admit  in  the  active  an  Accusative  with  the 
Genitive,  as  in  the  first  example. 

404.  The  Predicate  Genitive  of  price  or  value  is  used  with 
sum  and  with  verbs  of  valuing : 

Mdgnl  sunt  tuae  litterae,  your  lettei's  are  of  great  value.  Cic.  Pluris 
esse,  to  be  of  greater  value.  Cic.  Parvi  pendere,  to  tJiink  lightly  of.  Sail. 
Auctoritatem  tuam  magnl  aestimo,  I  prize  your  authority  highly,   Cic. 

Note  1. — With  these  verbs  the  Genitive  of  price  or  value  is  generally  an  adjective^ 
as  in  the  examples,  \i\iX  pretii  is  sometimes  used : 

ParvI  pretii  est,  it  is  of  little  'value.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Nihill  and,  in  familiar  discourse,  a  few  other  Genitives  ^  occur: 

Nihill  facere,  to  take  7io  account  of.  Cic.  Non  flocci  pendere,  not  to  care  a  straw 
(lock  of  wool)  for.  Plant. 

405.  Ta7itly  quantl,  pluris,  and  minoris  are  also  used  as  Geni- 
tives OF  PRICE  with  verbs  of  huying  and  selling :  * 

Emit  hortOs  taiitl,  he  purchased  the  gardens  at  so  great  a  price.   Cic. 
Vendo  frumentum  ^^«m,  I  sell  grain  at  a  higher  price.   Cic. 
Note.— For  the  Ablative  of  price,  see  433. 

RUIiE  XIX.— Genitive  with  Special  Verbs. 

406.  The  Genitive  is  used — 

I.  With  misereor  and  miserescO : 

Miserere  laborum,  pity  the  labors.  Verg.  Miserescite  regis,  pity  the 
king.  Verg. 

*  Facultatis  and  mdgnl  are  Descriptive,  but  fontiuni  is  Partitive. 

2  The  foUowinf?  adjectives  are  so  used;  mdgnl,  parvi,  tantl,  quanil ;  plitris,  mi- 
noris ;  plurimi,  mdximl,  and  minimi. 

3  As  dssis,  flocci,  nancl,  and  lyill, 

*  Observe  that  verbs  of  buying  and  selling  admit  the  Genitive  of  price  only  when 
one  of  these  adjectives  is  used.     In  other  cases  they  take  the  Ablative  of  price. 


■!>  ■«■ 


214 


GENITIVE, 


GENITIVE. 


215 


II.  With  recorder,  mexnini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor :  ^ 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  rememhera  the  past,   Cic.     Oblltus  sum  mer, 

I  have  forgotten  myself.   Ter.     FlagitiGrum  recordaii,  to  recollect  base  deeds, 
Cic.     ReminiscI  virtutis,  to  remember  virtue,    Caes. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Illorum  refert,  it  concerns  them.  Sail.  Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  inter- 
est of  all,   Cic. 

Note. — The  expression,  Venit  in  mentem^  *it  occurs  to  mind/  is  sometimes  con- 
strued with  the  Genitive  and  sometimes  with  the  Nominative : 

Venit  mihi  Platonis  in  mentem,^  the  recollection  of  Plato  comes  to  my  mind,  or  2 
recollect  Plato.  Cic.  NOn  venit  in  mentem  pugna,  does  not  the  battle  occur  to  your 
mind?  Liv. 

407.  Verbs  of  remembering  and  forgetting  often  take  the 
Accusative  instead  of  the  Genitive : 

Memineram  Paullum,  /  remnemhered  Paullus,  Cic.  Triumphos  recordSrl, 
to  recall  triumphs,   Cic.     Ea  rcminiscere,  remember  tliose  things.    Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Accusative  is  the  common  construction  (1)  with  recordor  and  (2) 
with  the  other  verbs,  if  it  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  or  designates  an  object  re- 
membered by  a  contemporary  or  an  eye-witness. 

Note  2. — The  Ablative  with  de  is  rare : 

Eecordare  de  ceteris,  hethink  yourself  of  the  others.  Cic. 

408.  The  Construction  with  refert  and  interest  is  as  follows : 
I.  The  Person  interested  is  denoted — 

1.  By  the  Genitive^  as  under  the  rule. 

2.  By  the  Ablative  Feminine  of  the  Possessive.^  This  takes  the  place  of  the 
Genitive  of  personal  pronouns  : 

Mea  refert,  it  concerns  me,   Ter.     Interest  mea,  it  interests  me.   Cic. 

3.  By  the  Dative,  or  Accusative  with  or  ivithout  Ad/  but  rarely,  and 
chiefly  with  refert,  which  moreover  often  omits  the  person : 

Quid  refert  viventi,  tvhat  does  it  concern  one  living  ?  Ilor.  Ad  me  refert, 
it  concerns  me.   Plant. 

II.  The  Subject  of  Importance,  or  that  which  involves  the  interest,  is 
'Expressed  by  an  Infinitive  or  Clause,  or  by  a  Neuter  Pronoun : 


*  The  Genitive  with  verbs  ot  pitying,  remembering,  tinii  forgetting  probably  de- 
pends upon  the  substantive  idea  contained  in  the  verbs  themselves ;  see  Internal  Object, 
371, 1.,  2.  Thus,  meminl  with  the  Accusative  means  I  remember  distinctly  and  fully  ^ 
generally  used  of  an  eye-icitnem  or  of  a  contemporary  ;  but  with  a  Genitive,  it  means  to 
Jtave  some  recollection  of.  With  refert  the  Genitive  depends  upon  re,  the  Ablative  of 
res,  contained  in  the  verb,  and  with  interest  it  may  bo  a  Predicate  Genitive,  or  may  sim- 
ply follow  the  analogy  of  refert. 

2  With  ^'enit  in  mentem,  the  Genitive  Platonis  supplies  the  place  of  subject.  It 
probably  limits  the  pronominal  subject  already  contained  in  venit,  as  in  every  Latin  verb, 
it  or  thai  of  Plato,  the  recollection  of  Plato. 

^  See  foot-not©  1,  above. 


Interest  omnium  recte  facere,  to  do  right  is  the  interest  of  all,  Cic.  Vestra 
hoc  interest,  this  intm^ests  you,   Cic. 

III.  The  Degree  of  Interest  is  expressed  by  an  Adverb,  by  a  Neuter 
used  adverbially,  or  by  a  Genitive  of  Value  (404): 

Vestra  maxime  interest,  it  especially  interests  you.  Cic.  Quid  nostra  rg- 
fert,  what  does  it  concern  us  ?  Cic.  Jklagni  interest  mea,  it  greatly  interests 
me,   Cic. 

IV.  The  Object  or  End  for  which  it  is  important  is  expressed  by  the 
Accusative  with  ad,  rarely  by  the  Dative : 

Ad  honorem  nostrum  interest,  it  is  important  for  our  honor,   Cic. 
RULE  XX.— Accusative  and  Genitive. 

409.  The  Accusative  of  the  Person  and  the  Geni- 
tive of  the  Thing  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs : 

I.  With  verbs  of  reminding ^  admonisliing :  ^ 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  rcmhids  you  of  friendship.  Cic.  Mllites 
necessitatis  monet,  he  rcmiiids  the  soldiers  of  the  necessity,   Ter. 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing,  convicting,  acquitting : ' 

Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  crime.  Cic.  Levitatis  eum  con- 
vincere,  to  convict  him  of  levity.  Cic.  Absolvere  injuriae  eum,  to  acquit 
him  of  injustice,   Cic. 

III.  ^\i\i  miserety  2^(^(^^^it(it,  pudet,  taedet,  and  jnget:"^ 

Forum  nos  miseret,  loe  pity  them  (it  moves  our  pity  of  them).  Cic. 
Consilil  me  paenitet,  /  repent  of  my  purpose.  Cic.  Me  stultitiae  meae 
pudet,  /  am  ashamed  of  my  folly.    Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Genitive  of  the  Thing  designates,  with  verbs  of  reminding,  etc.,  that 
to  which  the  attention  is  called;  with  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  the  crime,  charge;  and 
with  miseret,  paenitet,  etc.,  the  object  which  produces  the  feeling;  see  examples. 

Note  2.— The  personal  verbs  included  under  this  rule  retain  the  Genitive  in  the 
Passive : 

Accusatus  est  jproditionis,  he  was  accused  of  treason.  Nep. 


*  The  Genitive  with  verbs  of  reminding  and  admonishing  may  be  explained  like 
that  with  verbs  of  pitying,  remembering,  and.  forgetting ;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 
With  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  the  Genitive  may  also  be  explained  in  the  same  way,  or 
may  depend  upon  nomine,  crlmine,  or  judicio,  understood.  Sometimes  one  of  these 
nouns  is  expressed;  see  410,  II.,  1. 

3  The  Genitive  with  paenitet,  pudet,  etc.,  like  that  with  venit  in  mentem  (see  406, 
note,  with  foot-note),  depends  upon  the  impersonal  subject  contained  in  the  verb.  Thus, 
te  haec  pudent  means  these  things  shame  you,  and  me  stultitiae  meae  pudet,  literally 
rendered,  means  of  my  folly  (i.  e.,  the  thought  of  it,  or  something  about  it),  shames  me. 
The  Genitive  with  miseret  may  be  explained  either  in  the  same  way,  or  like  that  with 
misereor;  see  foot-note  1,  page  214. 


/ 


'A 


216 


GENITIVE, 


Note  3.— In  judicial  language  a  few  verbs  not  otherwise  so  used  are  treated  as 
verbs  of  accusing.    Thus  condlco  occurs  with  the  Genitive  in  Livy,  I.,  32. 

410.  Special  Constructions. — The  following  deserve  notice: 

I.  Verbs  of  Reminding  and  Admonishing  sometimes  take,  instead  of 
the  Genitive — 

1.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely  of  a  substan- 
tive, thus  admitting  two  accusatives : 

Illud  me  admones,  you  admonish  me  of  that.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  with  de — moneo  and  its  compounds  generally  so : 
Be  proelio  vos  admonul,  I  have  reminded  you  of  the  battle.   Cic. 

II.  Verbs  of  Accusing,  Convicting,  sometimes  take,  instead  of  the 
Genitive  of  the  crime,  etc. — 

1.  The  Genitive  with  nomine.^  crimine^  jUdicio^  or  some  similar  word: 
Nomine  conjurationis  damnati  sunt,  they  were  condemned  on  the  charge  of 

conspiracy.   Cic.    Innocentem  judicio  capitis  arcessere,  to  arraign  an  inno- 
cent man  on  a  capital  charge,    Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective,  rarely : 
Id  me  accusas,  you  accuse  me  of  that.   Plant. 

3.  The  Ablative  alone  or  with  a  preposition,  generally  de  : 

De  pectiniis  repetundls  damnatus  est,  he  teas  convicted  of  extortion.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  of  Condemning,  the  Penalty  is  generally  expressed  by 
the  Ablative^  or  by  the  Accusative  with  a  preposition^  usually  ad: 

Tertia  parte  damnarl,  to  be  condemned  to  forfeit  a  third  of  one's  land.  Liv. 
Capite  damnare,  to  condemn  to  death,  Cic.  Morte  multure,  to  punish  with 
death.   Cic.    Ad  bestias  condemnare,  to  condemn  to  the  ivild  beasts.   Suet. 

NoTR  1.— In  the  poets  the  penalty  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the  Dative: 

Morti  damnatus,  condemned  to  death.  Lucr. 

NoTB  2.— The  Genitive  occurs  in  such  special  expressions  as  capitis  condemnare^ 
'to  condemn  to  death';  xbtl  da7nnarl,Ho  be  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow '  =  ' to  obtain 
a  wish';  damnarl  longl  lahoris^'' to  be  condemned  to  long  labor';  vdtl  reu8^  =  votl 
damnatus^  *  condemned  to  fulfil  a  vow ' : 

Aliquem  capitis  condemnare,  to  condemn  one  to  death.  Cic.  Damnatus  longi  laboris, 
condemned  to  long  labor.  Hor. 

IV.  With  MiSERET,  Paenitet,  Pcdet,  Taedet,  and  Piget,  an  Infinitive 
or  Clause  is  sometimes  used,  rarely  a  neuter  pronoun  or  nihil : 

Me  paenitet  vixisse,  I  repent  having  lived.  Cic.  Te  haec  pudent,  these 
things  shame  you,   Ter. 

Note  1.— Like  miseret  are  sometimes  used  miserescit^  commiserescit^  miseretur^ 
commiseretur.    Like  taedet  are  used  pertaedet^  pertaesum  est. 

Note  2. — Pudet  sometimes  takes  the  Genitive  of  the  person  before  whom  one  is 
ashamed : 

M6  tui  pudet,  /  am  aslutmed  in  your  presence.  Ter.  Pudet  hominum,  it  is  a 
shame  in  the  sight  of  men,  Liv. 


1  Regularly  so  when  the  penalty  is  a  definite  sum  of  money. 

2  Best  explained  as  a  substantive. 


ABLATIVE. 


217 


Note  8. — Pertaesus  admits  the  Accusative  of  the  object : 
Pertaesus  ignuviam  suam,  disgusted  with  his  own  inaction.  Suet 

V.  Many  other  verbs  sometimes  take  the  Genitive.^     Thus — 

1.  Some  verbs  of  plenty  and  want.,  as  compleo.,  impleo.^  egeO^  indigeO,  like 
adjectives  of  the  same  meaning  (399,  I.,  3) : 

Virtus  exercitiltionis  indiget,  virtue  requires  exercise.  Cic.  Auxilil  egfire, 
to  need  aid.  Caes.  Multitudinem  religionis  implevit,^  he  inspired  (filled)  the 
multitude  with  religion,  Liv.  Rerum  satagere,  to  be  occupied  with  (to  do 
enough  of)  business.   Ter. 

2.  Some  verbs  of  desire.^  emotion.^  or  feeling.,  like  adjectives  of  the  same 
meaning  (399,  I.,  1) : 

Cupiunt  tui,  they  desire  you,  Plaut.  Tul  testimonil  veritus,  fearing  your 
testimony.  Cic.  Kmrnx"^  ^^\\^<^b.,  I  am  uncertain  in  mind,  Cic.  Discrucior 
animi,  /  am  troubled  in  spirit.  Plaut.  Te  angis  animi,  you  make  yourself 
anxious  in  mind.  Plaut.  Desipere  mentis,  to  he  foolish  in  mind,  or  mistaken 
in  opinion.   Plaut. 

3.  A  few  verbs  denoting  mastery  or  participation,  like  adjectives  of  the 
same  meaning  (399,  I.,  B), potior,^  adipiscor.,  regno: 

Siciliae  potitus  est,  he  became  master  of  Sicily.  Nep.  Rerum  adeptus  est,  he 
obtained  the  power.  Tac.   ^Qgr\di\\t^o^v\orVim.,he  teas  king  of  the  j^eoples.  Hor. 

4.  In  H\Q  poets.,  a  few  verbs  s  take  the  Genitive,  instead  of  the  Ablative  of 
Separation  or  Cause  (413) : 

Abstinere  irainim,  to  abstain  from  anger.  Hor.  Laborum  decipitur,  he  is 
beguiled  of  his  labors.  Hor.  Desine  querclurum,  cease  from  complaints.  Hor. 
DOsistere  pugnae,  to  desist  from  the  battle.  Verg.  Eum  culpae  liberare,  to 
free  him  from  blame  (i.  e.,  to  acquit  him).  Liv.  Miruri  laborum,  to  admire 
because  of  toils.  Verg.  Damni  Infecti  promittere,  to  give  surety  in  view  of 
expected  damage.   Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Genitive  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives^  see  64}},  I. ;  544. 


SECTION    VII. 

ABLATIVE. 

411.  The  Latin  Ablative  performs  the  duties  of  three 
cases  originally  distinct :  ^ 

I.  The  Ablative  Peoper,  denoting  the  relation  from  : 

Expulsus  est  patridj  he  ivas  banished  from  his  country.   Cic. 

»  Transitives  of  this  class  of  course  admit  the  Accusative  with  the  Genitive. 

2  See  421,  IL 

8  Animi  in  such  instances  is  probably  a  Locative  in  origin,  as  animls  is  used  in  the 
same  way  in  the  plural.    See  foot-note  on  animi.,  399,  III.,  1. 

*  Potior  takes  the  Genitive  regularly  when  it  means  to  reduce  to  subjection, 

»  As  absUneO.,  decipic,  desinO,  desisto,  levO,  llberO,  etc. ;  mlror,  etc. 

8  These  three  cases,  still  recognized  in  the  Sanskrit,  originally  had  distinct  forms; 
but  in  the  Latin,  under  the  Influence  of  phonetic  change  and  decay,  these  forms  have 

10 


318 


ABLATIVE. 


ABLA  TIVK 


219 


II.  The  Instrumental,  denoting  the  relation  with,  by  : 

Sol  omnia  luee  collustrat,  the  sun  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.    Cic. 

III.  The  Locative,  denoting  the  relation  in,  at  : 

S6  oppido  tenet,  he  keeps  himself  in  the  town.   Cic. 

I.  Ablative  Proper. 
RUUB  XXI.— Place  fSrom  which. 

412.  The  Place  from  which  is  denoted  bj  the  Ablative: 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex  : 

Ah  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city.    Caes.     De  foro,  frojn 
the  forum.    Cic.     Ex  Africa, /rom  (out  of )  ^/r?>a.    Li  v. 

II.  In  Names  of  Towns  loithout  a  preposition :  * 

Platonem  Athenis  arcessivit,  he  summoned  Plato  from  Athens.    Nep. 
Fugit  Corintho,  he  fed  from  Corinth.    Cic. 

1.  Many  names  of  islands^  and  the  Ablatives  domo  and  rure^  are  used 
like  names  of  towns  : 

Domo  profugit,  lie  fed  from  home.   Cic.     D'elo  proficiscitur,  he  proceeds 
FROM  Delos.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablative  of  places  not  towns  is  sometimes  used  without  a  prepo- 
sition^ especially  in  poetry  : 

Cadere  nubibus,  to  fall  from  the  clouds.  Verg.    Labi  eqno,  to  fall  from  a 
HORSE.   Hot. 

3.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  used  with  names  of  towns,  especially 
for  emphasis  or  contrast : 

Ab  Arded  Romam  vencrunt,  thei/  came  from  Ardea  to  Borne.   Liv. 

Note. — The  preposition  is  generally  used  when  the  mcinity^  rather  than  the  town 
Itself,  is  meant : 

Discessit  a  Brundisio,  he  departed  from  Brundisium  (i.  e.,  from  the  port).  Caes. 

RULE  XXII.— Separation»  Source,  Cause. 

413.  Separation,  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the 
AMatiye  vntTi  or  without  a  preposition : 

pii^TiON. — Caedem  ^  vobis  dSpello,  /  ward  off  slaughter  from  you. 
Ci'c/   /Hunc  d.  tuls  dris  arcebis,  you  will  keep  this  one  from  your  altars. 

become  identical,  and  their  uses  have  been  blended  in  a  single  case  called  the  Ablative. 
On  the  general  subject  of  the  Ablative  and  its  use^  see  Merguet,  pp.  109-117;  Delbriick; 
Hiibschmann,  pp.  82-106;  Holzweissig,  pp.  28  and  75;  Draeger,  L,  pp.  494-571;  Roby, 
II.,  pp.  68-115. 

^  This  was  the  original  construction  for  all  places  alike. 


i 


Cic.  Expulsus  est  patria,  he  was  banished  from  his  country.  Cic.  Urbem 
commeatu  privavit,  he  deprived  the  city  of  supplies.  Nep.  ConStu  desti- 
terunt,  they  desisted  from  the  attempt.  Caes.  Vagina  eripe  ferrum,  draw 
your  sword  from  its  scabbard,  Verg. 

Source. — Hoc  audlvi  de  parent e  mcO,  I  heard  this  from  my  father.  Cic. 
Oriundr  ab  Sablnls,  descended  from  the  Sabines.  Liv.  Statua  ex  acre 
facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Abiete  puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir, 
Verg.     Jove  natus,  son  o/jM/>«7^r.   Cic. 

Cause. — Ars  utdUate  laudatur,  an  art  is  praised  because  of  its  useful- 
ness. Cic.  Lacrim6^awc?2o, /2^e^/)  FOR  (on  account  of)  JOY.  Ter.  Vestra 
hoc  causa  volebam,  /  desired  this  on  your  account.  Cic.  Rogatu  veneram,  / 
had  come  by  request.  Cic.  Ex  vulnere  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound, 
Cic.     Aeger  erat  vulneribus,  he  was  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wounds.   Nep. 

Note  1.— Transitive  Verbs  admit  an  Accusative  with  the  Ablative;  see  examples. 

Note  2.— The  prepositions  most  frequently  used  with  the  Ablative  of  Separation 
and  Source  are  a,  ab,  de,  c,  ex,  and  with  the  Ablative  of  Cause,  de,  e,  ex. 

Note  3.— With  the  Ablative  of  Separation  the  preposition  is  more  freely  used  when 
the  separation  is  local  and  literal  than  when  it  is  figurative  :  de  ford, '  from  the  forum ' ; 
€X  Asia,' out  of  Asia';  but  l&vwre  metu^' to  relieve  from  fear';  conatu  desistere, ' to 
desist  from  the  undertaking^.' 

Note  4.— For  the  Genitive  instead  of  the  Ablative  of  Separation,  see  410,  V.,  4; 
and  for  the  Dative  similarly  used,  see  385,  2. 

414.  The  Ablative  of  Separation  designates  that  from  which 
anything  is  separated,  or  of  which  it  is  deprived,  and  is  generally 
used  without  a  preposition  in  the  following  situations : 

I.  With  verbs  meaning  to  relieve^  deprive,  need,  be  without :  ^ 

Leva  mc  hoc  onere,  relieve  me  of  this  burden.  Cic.  VinclU  exsolvere,  to 
release  from  chains.  Plaut.  Molestia  expedire,  to  relieve  of  trouble.  Cic. 
Militem  praeda  fraudiire,  to  defraud  the  soldiery  of  booty.  Liv.  Non  egeo 
medicina,  I  do  not  need  a  remedy.  Cio.  Vacare  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fauU. 
Cic.    See  also  examples  under  413. 

II.  With  moveo  in  special  expressions  :  ^ 

Signum  movere  loco^  to  move  the  standard  from  the  place.   Cic. 
in.  With  adjectives  meaning /r^^ /rom,  destitute  of:^ 
Animus  liber  cUrd,  a  mind  free  from  care.   Cic.    Expers  metU,  free  from 
fear.   Cic.     Urbs  nuda  praesidio,  a  city  destitute  of  defence.   Cic. 
Note.— For  a  similar  use  of  the  Genitive,^  see  399,  I.,  3. 
IV.  With  opus  and  iisus,  meaning  need: 

^  As  expedio,  exonero,  levo,  relevo,  llbero,  relaxo,  solvo,  absolvo,  exsolvo ;  exuo, 
fraudo,  nfido,  orbo,  spolio,  prlvo,  etc. 

2  As  in  movere  loco,  movere  sendtu,  movere  tribfi,  movere  vestlgio. 

^  AoT  ab  is  generally  used  with  names  of  persons  and  sometimes  with  other  words. 

*  Egenus,  indigiis,  sterilis,  and  some  others  are  freely  used  with  the  Genitive;  see 
399,  I.,  8. 


^ 


220 


ABLATIVE. 


ABLA  TIVE, 


Auctoritdte  tua  nObIs  opus  est,  2ve  need  (there  is  to  us  a  need  of)  your 
AUTHORITY.    Cic.     Usus  est  tua  mihi  operd^  I  need  your  aid.   Plaut. 

Note  1.— In  most  other  instances  a  preposition  accompanies  the  Ablative  of  Separa- 
tion, though  often  omitted  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose. 

Note  2.— Opus  est  and  usus  est  admit  the  Dative  of  the  person  with  the  Ablative  of 
the  thing;  see  examples. 

Note  3.— With  opus  and  iisjis,  the  Ablative  is  sometimes  a  perfect  participle,  or, 
with  opus,  a  noun  and  a  participle : 

Consulto  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.  Sail.  Opus  fuit  Hirtio  convento, 
there  was  7ieed  of  meeting  Ulrtius.  Cic. 

Note  4.— With  opus  est,  rarely  with  ilsus  est,  the  thing  needed  may  be  denoted— 

1)  By  the  Nominative,  rarely  by  the  Genitive  or  Accusative : 

Dux  nobis  opus  est,  ive  need  a  leader,  or  a  leader  is  necessary  (a  necessity)  for  us. 
Cic.  Temporis  opus  est,  tJiere  is  need  of  time.  Liv.  Opus  est  cibum,  there  is  need  of 
food.  Plaut. 

2)  By  an  Infinitive,  a  Clause,  or  a  Supine : 

Opus  est  tc  valGre,  it  is  necessary  that  you  he  well.  Cic.  Opus  est  ut  lavem,  it  is 
necessary  for  me  to  bathe  (that  I  bathe).  Plaut.  Dictu  est  opus,  it  is  necessary  to  be 
told.  Ter. 

415.  The  Ablative  of  Source  more  commonly  takes  a  prepo- 
sition ;  see  examples  under  413.  It  includes  agency,  parentage, 
material,  etc. 

I.  The  agent  or  author  of  an  action  is  designated  by  the  Ablative  with 
a  or  ab  : 

Occlsus  est  a  Thebanis,  he  icas  slain  hy  the  Thehans.  Nep.  Occidit  a  forti 
Achille,  he  was  slain  (lit.,  fell)  hy  brave  AcUlles.  Ov. 

1.  The  Ablative  without  a  preposition  may  be  used  of  a  person,  regarded 
not  as  the  anther  of  the  action,  but  as  the  means  by  which  it  is  effected  : 

Cornua  Numidls  ^  tirmat,  he  strengthens  the  wings  with  Numidians.   Liv. 

Note  1.— The  Accusative  W\\.\i  per  may  be  used  otihQ  person  through  whose  agency 
the  action  is  effected : 

Ab  Oppianico  per  Fabricios^  factum  est,  it  was  accomplished  bu.  Oppiayiicm 

THROUGH   THE    AGENCY    OF   THE    FaBRICII.     Cic. 

Note  2.— For  the  Dative  of  Agent,  see  388. 

2.  When  anything  is  personified  as  agent,  the  Ablative  with  a  or  c^inay 
be  used  as  in  the  names  of  persons  :  ^% 

Vinci  a  voluptate,  to  he  conquered  hy  pleasure.  Cic.  A  fortuna  datil^  oc- 
casiOnem,  an  opportunity  furnished  hy  fortune.   Nep.  \^ 

II.  Perfect  Participles  denoting  parentage  or  birth— y€n^7^^s,  natm, 
orfus,  etc. — generally  take  the  Ablative  without  a  preposition : 

Jove  natus,  son  of  Jupiter.  Cic.  Tantalo  prognatus,  descended  from  Tan- 
talus,  Cic.     ViirQntihyiswJit\humi\\h\i%,  horn  of  humble  parents.   Cic. 

1  Here  note  the  distinction  between  the  Ablative  with  ab  (ab  Oppianico),  denotinj^ 
the  author  of  the  action,  the  Accusative  with  per  {per  Fabricios),  the  person  through 
whose  agency  the  action  was  performed,  and  the  Ablative  alone  (NumidU),  the  means 
of  the  action. 


221 


NoTE.-In  designating  Remote  Ancestry,  a  or  ab  is  generally  used ;  but  after  natus 
and  ortus,  the  ^.U&iiYes  familia,  genere,  loco,  and  siirpe,  when  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive, omit  the  preposition : 

Oriundl  ab  Sablnis,  descended  from,  the  Sabines.  Liv.  Ortl  ab  Germanls,  sprung 
from  the  Germans.  Caes.    Nobill  genere  nutus,  born  of  a  noble  family.  Sail. 

III.  With  the  Ablative  of  Material,  e  or  ex  is  generally  used,  though 
often  omitted,  especially  in  poetry  : 

Statua  ex  acre  facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze.  Cic.  Pocula  ex  auro,  cups 
of  gold.  Cic.  Acre  cavo  clipcus,  a  shield  of  concave  bronze.  Verg.  Abiete 
puppis,  the  stern  made  of  fir.  Verg. 

Note  l.-A  special  use  of  the  Ablative,  kindred  to  the  above,  is  seen  with  faciO,  fW, 
and  sum  in  such  expressions  as  the  following : 

Quid  hoc  homine  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  icith  this  man?  Cic.  Quid  illo  Het, 
what  loill  become  of  him  t  Cic.    Quid  te  futurum  est,  itV^ajfzriV^  become  o/yoft?  Cic. 

Note  2.— The  Dative  or  the  Ablative  with  de  occurs  in  nearly  the  same  sense : 

Quid  huic  homini  facias,  what  are  you  to  do  tcith  (or  to)  this  man  t  Cic.  Quid  d§ 
te  futurum  est,  what  will  become  of  your  Cic. 

^  416.  The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  generally  used  without  a  prepo- 
sition. ^    It  designates  that  by  reason  of  which,  because  of  wJiich,  in 
accordance  with  which  anything  is  or  is  done,  and  is  used  both  with 
verbs  and  with  adjectives;  2  see  examples  under  413. 
I.  Cause  is  sometimes  denoted — 

1)  By  the  Ablative  with  a,  ab,  do,  e,  ex,  prae: 

Ab  eadem  superbia^  non  venire,  7iot  to  come  because  of  the  same  haughti- 
ness. Liv.  Ex  vulnere  s  aeger,  ill  in  consequence  of  his  wound.  Cic.  Ex 
inyidia  laborare,  to  suffer  from  unpopularity.  Cic.  Non  prae  lacrimis  scri- 
bere,  not  to  write  in  consequence  of  tears.    Cic. 

2)  By  the  Accusative  with  ob,  per,  propter: 

Per  aetatem  inutiles,  useless  because  of  (lit.,  through)  their  age.  Caes.  In 
oppidum  propter  timorem  sese  recipiunt,  they  betake  themselves  into  the  city 
on  account  of  their  fear.   Caes. 

Note  1.— With  transitive  verbs  the  motive  which  prompts  the  action  is  often  ex- 
pressed by  the  Ablative  with  a  perfect  passive  participle : 

RGgni  cupidltate  4  inductus  conjurationem  tiioM,  influenced  by  the  desire  of  ruling, 
he  formed  a  conspiracy.  Caes. 

Note  2.— That  in  accordance  with  which  anything  is  done  is  often  denoted  by  the 
Ablative  wit/i  e  or  ex: 


JbU- 


1  The  Ablative  of  Cause  is  very  far  removed  from  the  original  meaning  of  the  Abla- 
tive, and  indeed  in  some  of  its  uses  was  probably  derived  from  the  Instrumental  Abla- 
tice;  see  418. 

2  This  includes  such  Ablatives  as  men  judicio,  in  accordance  with  my  opinion;  mea 
sententia,  jussH,  impulsil,  motiitff,  etc.;  causa,  gratia;  also  the  Ablative  with  de- 
sipio,  doled,  exsilio,  exsulto,  gaudeo,  laboro,  lacrimo,  laetor,  t/riwmpho,  etc. 

3  See  note  2,  foot-note. 

<  Here  cupiditate  must  be  construed  with  inductus,  yet  it  really  expresses  the  cause 
of  the  action,  fecit. 


^ 


222 


ABLATIVE, 


ABLATIVE, 


223 


Res  ex  foedere  repetuntur,  restitution  is  demanded  in  accordance  with  the 
TREATY.  Liv.  Dies  ex  praeceptls  tu'is  actus,  a  day  passed  in  accordance  with  your 
PRECEPTS.  Cic.  Ex  veritate  aestimare,  to  estimate  in  accordance  wit/i  the  truth.  Oic. 
Ex  auctoritate  ^  senatus  confirmare,  to  ratify  on  the  authority  of  the  senate,  Liv. 

RULE  XXIII,— Ablative  with  Comparatives. 

417.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by  the 
Ablative  :  ^ 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,^  notlmig  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Quid  est  melius  honiiaie,^  what  is  better  than  goodness  ?  Cic.  Scimus  so- 
lera majorem  esse  terra,^  we  know  that  the  sun  is  larger  than  the  earth,  Cic. 
Amicitia,  qua  nihil  melius  habemus,  friendship,  than  which  we  have  nothing 
better.  Cic.  Lacrima  nihil  citius  arescit,  nothing  dries  sooner  than  a  tear, 
Cic.    Potiorem  ira  salutem  habet,  he  regards  safety  as  belter  than  anger.  Liv. 

1,  Comparatives  with  Quam  are  followed  by  the  Nominative,  or  by  the 
case  of  the  corresponding  noun  before  them : 

Hibernia  minor  quam  Britannia  existimiTtur,  Ireland  is  considered  smaller 
than  Britain.  Caes.  Agrls  quam  urbi  terribilior,  more  terrible  to  the  country 
than  TO  THE  city.   Liv. 

Note  1.— The  construction  with  quajn  is  the  full  form  for  which  the  Ablative  is  an 
abbreviation.  The  Ablative  is  freely  used  for  quam  with  a  Subject  Nominative  or  Sub- 
ject Accmative—reg\x\eLv\y  so  for  qu<im  with  the  Nominative  or  Accusative  of  a  rela- 
tive pronoun,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  the  rule.  In  other  cases  quam  is  retained 
in  the  best  prose,  though  sometimes  omitted  in  poetry. 

Note  2.— After  plus,  minus,  amplius,  or  longius,  in  expressions  of  number  and 
quantity,  quam  is  often  omitted  without  influence  upon  the  construction ;  *  sometimes 
also  after  mctjar,  minor,  etc. ! 

Tecum  plus  annum  vixit,  he  lived  with  you  more  than  a  year.  Cic.  Minus  duo 
milia,  less  than  t/ico  thousand.  Liv. 

Note  3.— Instead  of  the  Ablative  after  a  comparative,  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as 
ante,  prae,  praeter,  or  supra,  is  sometimes  used : 

Ante  alios  immanior,  more  monstrous  than  (before)  the  others.  Verg. 

Note  4.— Alius,  involving  a  comparison,  other  than,  is  sometimes  used  with  the 
Ablative : 


1  These  and  similar  Ablatives  with  prepositions  show  the  transition  from  nource  to 
cauae,  and  illustrate  the  manner  in  which  the  latter  was  developed  from  the  former.  The 
Ablative  with  the  proposition  seems  in  general  to  retain  something  of  the  idea  (^inource. 

a  This  Ablative  furnishes  the  standard  of  comi^Sivisou— that  fro7n  which  one  starts. 
Thus,  \f  virtue  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  what  is  lovely,  nothing  is  more  so.  This  Abla- 
tive is  sometimes  explained  as  instrumental  (418),  but  that  view  is  controverted  by  a 
Bimilar  use  of  the  Greek  Genitive,  which  does  not  contain  the  instrumental  Ablative,  and 
of  the  Sanskrit  Ablative,  which  is  often  distinct  from  the  instrumental. 

3  Vii'iute  =  quam  virtus ;  bonitdte  =  quam  bonitas ;  terra  =  quam  icrram  (sc. 

esse). 

4  So  in  expressions  of  age  :  ndtus  plUs  triginta  annos,  *  having  been  born  more  than 
thirty  years.'  The  same  meaning  is  also  expressed  by  major  trigintd  annos  ndtus, 
major  trigintd  annis,  major  quam  trigintd  annorum,  or  major  trigintd  annorum. 


-  Quaerit  alia  his,  he  seeks  other  things  than  these.  Plant.    Alius  sapiente,  other  than 
a  2vise  man.  Hor. 

Note  5.-Quam  pro  denotes  disproportion,  and  many  Ahlatives-opinidfie,  spL 
aequo,  justb,  solito,  etc.— are  often  best  rendered  by  clauses ;  ' 

Minor  caedes  quam  pro  victoria,  less  slaughter  than  was  proportionate  to  the  vic- 
tory. Liv.  Scrius  spG  venit,  he  came  later  than  was  hoped  (than  hope).  Liv.  Plus 
aequo,  77iore  than  is  fair,  Cic. 

2.  With  Comparatives,  the  Measure  of  Difference,^  the  amount  by 
which  one  thing  surpasses  another,  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  : 

Hibernia  dimidio  minor  quam  Britannia,  Ireland  smaller  by  one  half  than 
Britain,    Caes. 

II.  Instrumental  Ablative. 

418.  The  Instrumental  Ablative  denotes  both  Accom- 
paniinent  and  Means.^ 

RULiE  XXIV.— Ablative  of  Accompaniment* 

419.  The  Ablative  is  used— 

I.  To  denote  Accompakimeot.  It  then  takes  the  prepo- 
sition cum : 

Vivit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  with  Balbus.  Cic.  Cum  gladiis  stant,  they 
sta7id  with  swords  (i.  e.,  armed  with  swords).    Cic. 

II.  To  denote  Characteristic  or  Quality.  It  is  then 
modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue.  Caes.  QuI- 
dam  magno  capite,  ore  rubicundo,  magnls  pedibus,  a  caiain  07ie  with  a 
large  head,  with  a  red  face,  and  with  large  feet.  Plant.  Catilina  ingenio 
malo  fuit,  Catiline  was  a  man  of  a  bad  spirit.  Sail  Uri  sunt  specie  tauri, 
the  urus  is  (lit.,  the  uri  are)  of  the  appearance  of  a  bull.    Caes. 

Note,— The  Ablative,  when  used  to  denote  characteristic  or  quality,  may  be  caUed 
either  the  Descriptive  Ablative  or  the  Ablative  of  Characteristic. 

III.  To  denote  Manner.'  It  then  takes  the  preposition 
cum,  or  is  modified  by  an  adjective  or  by  a  Genitive  : 

»  See  4k2Z.  ~~ 

2  The  idea  of  means  was  probably  developed  from  that  of  accompaniment,  as  seen 
in  such  expressions  as  cum  oinnibus  c-opiis  sequitur,'-he  pursues  with  all  his  forces'— 
accompaniment,  which  readily  sugrgests  means,  as  he  employs  \n&  forces  as  meajus; 
eq7ils  Iverunt,  *they  went  with  homes'— accompaniment  and  means.  Some  scholars 
have  conjectured  that  orig^inally  accompaniment  and  means  were  expressed  by  separate 
case-forms,  but  of  this  there  seems  to  be  little  proof 

3  Note  the  close  connection  between  these  three  uses  of  the  Ablative— the  first  desig- 
nating an  attendant  person  or  thing— 7t'/7A  Balbus,  with  swords ;  the  second,  an  at- 
tendant quality— a  youth  icith  (attended  hy)  the  Ugliest  virtue ;  the  third,  an  attend- 


\ 


i-.*^..  ;■    'J*' 


^    ..w.»_ 


-  r  ^.  -yf^  '■■.■■'><  ■>■>"     1  ■ '  "<!*"  ""^^^**i   " 


224 


ABLATIVE. 


ABLATIVE, 


Cum  virtute  vTxit,  he  lived  virtuously.  Cic.  Summct  vi  proelium  com- 
mlserunt,  they  joined  battle  with  the  greatest  violence.  Nep.  Duobus 
modis  fit,  it  is  done  in  two  icai/s.    Cic. 

Note  l.—The  Ablative  of  mavner  sometimes  takes  cwm  even  when  modified  by  an 
adjective : 

Mdgnd  cum  cHrCi  scripsit,  he  wrote  with  great  care.  Cic. 

Note  2.— But  the  Ablative  of  a  few  words  is  sometimes  used  without  cum^  even 
when  unattended  by  an  adjective,  aa  Jure,  'rightly';  injuria,  *  unjustly';  ordine,  "in 
an  orderly  manner';  ratione,  'systematically';  silentio,  'in  silence,'  etc.* 

Note  3.— Per,  with  the  Accusative,  sometimes  denotes  manner:  per  vim^  'violent- 
ly ' ;  per  ludum, '  sportively.' 

1.  On  the  Ablative  of  Accompaniment,  observe — 

1)  Ihatcum  is  often  omitted— (1)  especially  when  the  Ablative  is  qualified 
by  an  adjective,  and  (2)  after  jungo,  misceo,  and  their  compounds  : 

Ingenti  exercitu  profectus  est,  he  set  out  ivith  a  large  army.  Liv.  Ira- 
probitas  scelere  juncta,  depravity  joined  with  erime.   Cic. 

2)  That  the  Ablative  tvith  cum  is  often  used  of  hostile  encounte)*s : 

Cum  Gallis  certure,  tojight  with  the  Gauls.  Sail.  Nobiscum  hostes  con- 
tends runt,  the  enemy  contended  with  us.   Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Dative  with  verbs  denoting  union  or  contention,  see  385,  4,  3). 

2.  On  the  Descriptive  Ablative,  as  compared  with  the  Descriptive 
Genitive,  observe — 

1)  That  in  descriptions  involving  size  and  number^  the  Genitive  is  used; 
see  examples  under  396,  V. 

2)  That  in  most  descriptions  involving  external  characteristics,  parts  of  the 
body,,  and  the  like^  the  Ablative  is  used,  as  in  the  second  and  fourth  examples 
under  419,  11. 

3)  That  in  other  instances  either  case  may  be  used. 

4)  That  the  Ablative,  like  the  Genitive,  may  be  used  either  with  nouns, 
as  in  the  first  and  second  examples  under  419,  II.,  or  with  verbs  in  the  predi- 
cate, as  in  the  other  examples. 

RULE  XXV.— Ablative  of  Means. 

420.  Instrument  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive : 

Cornibus  taurl  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 
Cic.  Gloria  ducitur,  he  is  led  by  glory.  Cic.  Sol  omnia  luce  collustrat, 
(he  SU71  illumines  all  things  with  its  light.  Cic.  Lacte  vivunt,  they  live  upon 
milk.  Caes.  Tellus  saucia  vomeribus,  the  earth  turned  (wounded)  ivith  the 
ploughshare.    Ovid. 

ant  circumstance— to  live  %cith  rirtue,  virtuoushj.    Compare  cum  Balbo  vivere  and 

CU771  virtiite  vivere. 

1  But  perhaps  most  Ablatives  which  never  take  cum  are  best  explained  as  the  Abla- 
tive of  cause— M  lege,  *"  according  to  law';  consuctudine,  *  according  to  custom';  con- 
tiilio, '  on  purpose,'  etc. 


225 


Note.— This  Ablative  is  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  is  used  both  with  verbs  and  with 
adjectives. 

1.  The  following  expressions  deserve  notice : 

1)  Quadraginta  hostiis  sacrificare,  to  sacrifice  with  forty  victims.  Liv. 
Facere  vitula,  to  make  a  sacrifice  of  (lit.,  with)  a  female  calf.  Verg. 

2)  Fidibus  can  tare,  to  play  upon  a  stringed  instrument.  Cic.  Pila  ludere, 
to  play  at  ball  (lit.,  with  the  ball).   Hor. 

3)  Aurelia  via  proficisci,  to  set  out  by  the  Aurelian  way.  Cic.  Eodem 
itinere  ire,  to  go  by  the  same  road.  Liv.  Esquilina  porta  ingredi,  to  enter  by 
the  Esquiline  gate.   Liv. 

4)  Virtute  praeditus,  possessed  of  virtue.  Cic.  Legiones  pulchrls  armls 
praeditas,  legions  furnished  with  beautiful  arms.   Plaut. 

2.  Adficid  with  the  Ablative  forms  a  very  common  circumlocution  :  honors 
adficere  =  honOrare,  to  honor  ;  admlrdtione  adficere  =  admirari,  to  admire;  poe- 
na adficere  =  punire,  to  punish,  etc  : 

Omnes  laetitia  adficit,  he  gladdens  all.   Cic. 

RULE  XXVI.— Ablative  in  Special  Constructions.' 

x:  421.  The  Ablative  is  used — 

^     I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
/^     Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  titimur,  toe  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 
^  Cic.     Magna  est  praedd  potitus,  he  obtained  great  booty.   Nep.     Lacte  et 
-y,  carne  vescebantur,  they  lived  upon  milk  and  flesh.   Sail. 
S-      IL  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  op  Plenty: 

/  Villa  abundat  lacte,  cased,  melle;  the  villa  abounds  in  milk,  cheese,  and 
(^  honey.  Cic.  Urbs  referta  copiis,  a  city  filled  with  supplies.  Cic.  Virtute 
/_,  praeditus,  endowed  with  virtue.  Cic.  Deus  bonis  explCvit  mundum,  God 
has  filled  the  world  with  blessings.    Cic. 

III.  With  dignus,  indignus,^  and  contentus : 

Digni  sunt  amicitid^  they  are  worthy  of  friendship.  Cic.  Vir  patre 
dignus,  a  man  worthy  of  his  father.  Cic.  Honore  indlgnissimirfe,  most  un- 
worthy of  honor.  Cic.    Natura  parvo  ?bntenta,  nci^wr^^^w^m^  w/f/i /zV^/e.^'Cic. 

Note  1. — Transitive  verbs  of  Plentv^  take  the  Accusative  and  Ablative: 
Armls  naves  onerat,  he  loads  the  ships  wit)im'ms.   Sail.     See  also  the  last 
e.yample  under  4«1,  IL 

Note  2. — Dignor,  as  a  Passive  verb   nlo^^ing  *  to  be   deemed  worthy,' 

>  This  Ablative  is  readily  explained  as  the  Ablative  of  means:  thus,  utor,  'I  use,' '  I 
M-r/e  myself  bt/ means  o/\- fruor,  'I  enjoy,'  'I  delight  myself  with'' ;  vescor,'!  feed 
ui)f)n,'  '1  feed  myself  with,''  etc. 

2  The  nature  of  the  Ablative  with  dignus  and  indlgmts  is  somewhat  uncertain.  On 
etymological  grounds  it  is  explained  as  instrumental ;  see  Delbruck,  p.  72;  Corssen, 
'  Krit.  Beitr.,'  p.  47. 

3  Transitive  verbs  of  plenty  mean  'to  fill,'  'to  furnish  with,'  etc.,  as  cu^nulO,  com- 
pleO,  impleO,  imbuO^  InstruO,  otiero,  ornd^  etc. 


^ 


J=^ 


vr"- 


■-'cr?r 


236 


ABLATIVE, 


ABLATIVE, 


227 


takes  the  Ablative ;  but  as  a  Deponent  verb  meaning  *  to  deem  worthy,'  used 
only  in  poetry  and  late  prose,  it  takes  the  Accusative  and  Ablative  : 

Honore  dignati  sunt,  they  have  been  deemed  worthy  of  honor.  Cic.  M6 
dignor  honore,  I  deem  myself  worthy  of  honor,    Verg. 

^^NoTE  Z.—Dxgnu8  and  indlgnua  occur  with  the  Genitive : 

Dignus  salutia,  worthy  of  safety.  Plaut.  Indlgnus  avorum,  unwortJiy  of  their  an- 
cesto?'8,  Verg.        "^^^ 

Note  i.^Utor,  friior,  fungor^  potior.,  and  vef^cor^  originally  transitive,  are  occa- 
sionally 80  used  in  classic  authors.  Their  participle  in  dm  is  passive  in  sense,  tjtor 
admits  two  Ablatives  of4Jbte  same  person  or  thing : 

Me  utetur  patro,  he^wUl  find  (use)  me  a  father.  Ter. 

NoTE'S^^^or  the  Genitive  with  potior.,  see  410,  V.,  3.  For  the  Genitive  with  verbs 
and  adjectives  of  plenty^  and  for  the  Acetisative  and  Genitive  with  iranaitive  verba 
oi  plenty^  see  410,  V.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  399, 1.,  3. 

RULE  XXVII.— Ablative  of  Price. 

422.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Vendidit  auro  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold.  Yerg.  Conduxit  mag- 
no  domum,  he  hired  a  house  at  a  high  price.  Cic.  Multo  sanguine  Poenis 
victoria  stetit,  the  victory  cost  the  Carthaginians  (stood  to  the  Carthaginians 
at)  much  blood.  Liv.  Qulnquaginta  talentis  aestiraarl,  to  be  valued  at  fifty 
talents,   Nep.     Yile  est  viginti  minis,  it  is  cheap  at  twenty  minae,   Plaut. 

Note  1.— The  Ablative  of  Price  is  used  (1)  with  verbs  of  buying,  selling,  hiring, 
letting  ;  (2)  of  costing,  of  being  cheap  or  dear;  i  (3)  of  valuing;  (4)  with  adjectives  of 
value.  1 

Note  2.— With  verbs  of  Exchanging— wi?^o,  commvtd,  etc.— (1)  the  thing  re<?eired 
is  generally  treated  as  the  pr^ce,  as  with  verbs  of  selling,  but  (2)  sometimes  the  thing 
given  is  treated  as  the  price,  as  with  verbs  of  buying,  or  is  put  in  the  Ablative  with  cv/tn  : 

Pace  bellum  mutavit,  he  exchanged  tear  for  peace.  Sail.  Exsilium  patrid  muta- 
vit,  7ie  exchanged  his  country  for  exile.  Curt.  Cum  patriae  carititte  gloriam  commu- 
tavit,  he  exchanged  love  of  country  for  glory.  Cic. 

Note  3.— For  the  Genitive  of  Price,  see  405. 

RULE  XXVm.— Ablative  of  Difference. 

423.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by  the 
Ablative : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  they  maJce  the  month  one  day  longer 
(longer  by  one  day).  Cic.  Biduo  me  antecessit,  he  preceded  me  by  two 
DAYS.  Cic.  Sol  multls  partibus  major  est  quam  terra,  the  sun  is  very  much 
(lit.,  BY  MANY  parts)  larger  than  the  earth,   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Ablative  is  thus  used  with  all  words  invohinpr  a  comparison,  but  ad- 
verbs often  supply  its  place:  mxdtum  robuntior,  'much  more  robust.' 

Note  2.— The  Ablative  of  differejiee  includes  the  Ablative  of  distance  (379,  2),  and 
the  Ablative  with  ante,  post,  and  abhinc  in  expressions  of  time  (430). 

1  As  sto,  consto,  liceo,  sum,  etc.;  car  us,  venalis,  etc. 


RULE  XXIX.— Specification. 

424.  A  noun,  acijective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative 
to  define  its  application  : 

AgesilSus  nomine^  non  potestdte  fuit  rex,  Agesilaus  was  king  in  name, 
wo^  IN  POWER.  Nep.  Claudus  altero  pede,  lame  in  one  foot.  Nep.  Mori- 
bus  similes,  similar  in  character,  Cic.  Reliquos  Gallos  virtiite  praecedunt, 
they  surpass  the  other  Gauls  in  courage.    Caes. 

Note  1. — This  Ablative  shows  in  tchat  respect  or  particular  anything  is  true : 
thus,  king  (in  what  respect?)  in  name. 

Note  2.-— For  the  Accusative  of  Specification,  see  3  78. 

III.  Locative  Ablative. 
RULE  XXX.— Place  in  which. 

425.  The  Place  in  which  is  denoted — 

I.  Generally  by  the  Locative  Ablative  ^  with  the  preposi- 
tion in  : 

Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.  Nep.  In  nostris  castrls, 
i7i  our  camp.   Caes.     In  Appia  via,  on  the  Appian  way,   Cic. 

II.  In  Names  of  Towks  by  the  Locative,^  if  such  a 
form  exists,  otherwise  by  the  Locative  Ablative  : 

Bomac  fuit,  he  was  at  Rome.    Cic.     Corinthl  pueros  docebat,  he  taught 

boys  AT  Corinth.   Cic.     Athenls  fuit,  he  was  at  Athens.   Cic.     Hoc  facis 

ArgTs,  you  do  (his  at  Argos.   Hor.     KarthSgine  reges  creabantur,  kings 

were  elected  (created)  at  Carthage,   Nep.     Gadibus  vixit,  he  lived  at  Gades. 

Cic. 

Note.— For  the  construction  with  verbs  meaning  to  collect,  to  come  together,  and 
with  those  meaning  to  place,  see  380,  note. 

1.  In  the  names  of  places  which  are  not  towns,  the  Locative  Ablatite 
is  often  used  without  a  preposition : 

1)  When  the  idea  of  means ^  manner ^  or  caitse  is  combined  with  that  of 

pAace :  ^ 

Oastris  se  tenuit,  he  kept  himself  in  camp.  Caes.  Aliquem  tecto  recipere, 
to  receive  any  one  in  one's  own  house.  Cic.  Proelio  cadere,  to  fall  in  battle. 
Caes.     Adulescentibus  delectari,  to  take  pleasure  in  the  young,   Cic.     Sua 

1  The  learner  will  remember  that  the  Locative  Ablative  does  not  differ  in  form  from 
any  other  Ablative;  see  411. 

2  See  48,  4;  51,  8;  66,  4.    The  Locative  was  the  original  construction  in  all  names 

of  places. 

3  In  some  cases  place  and  means  are  so  combined  that  it  is  diflScult  to  determine 
which  is  the  original  conception. 


/ 


\-  ■  . 


^- 


_»_^: 


m^-  _  jp" 


) 


228 


ABLATIVE, 


victoria  gloriantur,  thei/  glory  in  their  victory.   Caes.     NuUo  officio  assuCfactI, 
iraineil  in  no  duty,  Caes. 

Note.— The  Ablative  is  generally  used  withyfefs,  cnvfido.n'itor,  innltor,  and  fretiis: 
Nemo  fortunae  stabilitate  confldit,  no  one  trusts  (confides  in)  the  stability  o/ for- 
tune. Cic.    Sal  us  veritate  nititur,  scfety  rests  upon  truth.  Cic.    Fretus  amicis,  relying 
npon  his  friends.  Liv. 

2)  When  the  idea  oi place  is  fgurativc  rather  than  literal: 

Nova  pectore  versat  consilia,  she  devises  (turns  over)  new  plans  in  her 
nuEAST.  Verg.  Stare  judiciis.,  to  abide  by  (stand  in)  the  decisions.  Cic. 
Promissis  mancre,  to  remain  true  to  promises  (lit.,  remain  in).  Verg.  Pen- 
dCre  animis,^  to  he  perplexed  in  rnind.  Cic.  Intimis  sensibus  angi,  to  he 
irouhled  in  one's  inmost  feelings.  Cic.  Ferox  bello,  valiant  in  ivar.  Hor. 
J  lire  perltus,  skilled  in  law.   Cic. 

2.  The  Ablatives  loco^  locis^  parte^  partihus^  dextrd^  laevci^  sinistrd^  terrd^ 
and  marl,  especially  when  qualified  by  an  adjective,  and  other  Ablatives 
when  qualified  by  iotus^  are  generally  used  without  the  preposition : 

Aliquid  loco  ponere,  to  put  anything  in  its  place.  Cic.  Terra  marlquc,  on 
land  and  sea.   Liv.     Tota  Graecia,  in  all  Greece.   Nep. 

Note  t.— The  Ablative  libro,  'book,*  generally  takes  the  preposition  when  used  of  a 
portion  of  a  work,  but  omits  it  when  used  of  an  entire  treatise : 

In  eo  libro,  in  this  hook  (referring  to  a  portion  of  the  work).  Cic.  Alio  libro,  in  an- 
other work,  Cic. 

Note  2. — Other  Ablatives  sometimes  occur  without  the  preposition,  especially  when 
qualified  by  omnis^  medius^  or  universus: 

Omnibus  oppidls,  in  all  the  towns.  Caes. 

NoTfe  8.— In  poetry  the  Locative  Ablative  is  often  used  without  the  preposition ; 

Lucis  opicis,  in  shady  groves.  Verg.  Silvls  agrlsque,  in  the  forests  arid  fields.  Ov. 
Tbeatrls,  in  the  theatres.  Hor.    Ferre  umero,  to  bear  upon  the  shoulder.  Verg. 

3.  Ablative  for  the  Locative. — Instead  of  the  Locative  in  names  of 
towns  the  Ablative  is  used,  with  or  without  a  preposition — 

1)  When  the  proper  name  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  or  adjective  pronoun  : 
In  ipsa  Alexandna,2  in  Alexandria  itself.    Cic.     Longa  Alba,  at  Alba 

Long  a.  Verg. 

2)  Sometimes  when  not  thus  modified : 

In  monte  Albano  Lavinioque,  on  the  Alban  mount  and  at  Lavinium.  Liv. 
"ixi  Alexandria,»  at  Alexandria.  Liv. 

Note.— The  following  special  constructions  deserve  notice: 

In  oppido  Citi6,3  ly^  tj^^  town  Citiwn.  Nep.  Albae,*  in  urbe  opportunu,  at  Alba^  a 
convenient  city.  Cic. 

»  In  the  singular  animi  is  generally  used,  a  Locative  probably  both  in  form  and  in 
r-i  nification;  see  p.  211,  foot-note  4. 

'^  At  Alexandria  would  regularly  be  expressed  by  the  Locative,  Alexandrlae. 

3  Here  Citio  is  in  apposition  with  oppido,  the  usual  construction  in  such  cases,  though 
a  Genitive  limiting  oppido  occurs:  In  oppido  Antiochiae,  iii  the  city  of  AntiocJi.  Cic. 

*  A  Locative  may  thus  be  followed  by  tJi  urbe,  or  in  oppido.  modified  by  an  adjec- 
tive; but  see  363,  4,  2).    The  preposition  in  is  sometimes  omitted. 


1 

I 


ABLATIVE. 


229 


426.  Like  Names  of  Towns  are  used — 

1.  Many  Names  of  Islands: 

Lesbl  vixit,  he  lived  in  Lesbos.  Nep.  Conon  CyprI  vixit,  Conon  lived  in 
Cyprus.  Nep. 

2.  The  Locatives  domi,  luvi,  humi,  militiae,  and  belli: 

DomI  mllitiaeque,  at  home  and  in  the  field.  Cic.  Riirl  agere  vltam,  to 
spend  life  in  the  country.    Liv. 

Note. — A  few  other  Locatives  also  occur : 

Romae  Numidiaeque,  at  Rome  and  in  Nnmidia.  Sail.  Domum  ChersonCsi  habuit, 
he  had  a  house  in  the  Chersonesus.  Nep.  Truncum  reliquit  arenae,^  he  left  the  body 
in  the  sand.  Verg. 

427.  SuMMAKY. — The  Names  of  Places  not  towns  are  gen- 
erally put — 

I.  In  the  Accusative  with  ad  or  in,  to  denote  the  place  to  which  : 
In  Asiam  redit,  he  returns  to  (into)  Asia.   Nep. 

II.  In  the  Ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex,  to  denote  the  place  from  which  : 
Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from,  the  city.   Caes. 

III.  In  the  Locative  Ablative  with  in,  to  denote  the  place  at  or  in  which  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy.   Nep. 

Note.— For  qualifications  and  exceptions.,  see  380,  3  and  4;  413,  2;  425, 1  and  2. 

428.  Summary. — The  Names  of  Towns  are  put" — 

I.  In  the  Accusative^  to  denote  the  place  to  which  : 
Nuntius  Romam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome.  Liv. 

n.  In  the  Ablative^  to  denote  the  place  from  which  : 
Fagit  Corintho,  he  fled  from  Corinth.   Cic. 

III.  In  the  Locative.,  or  in  the  Locative  Ablative^  to  denote  the  place  at 
or  IN  which  : 

Corinthi  puerCrS  docebat,  he  taught  boys  at  Corinth.  Cic.  Gadibus  vixit, 
he  lived  at  Gades.     Cic. 

Note. — For  qualifications  and  exceptions^  see  380, 1 ;  413,  3;  425,  8. 

RULE  XXXI,— Time. 

429.  The  Tesie  of  an  Action  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative : 

Odogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  in  his  eightieth  year.  Cic.  Vere 
co'.ivenere,  they  assembled  in  the  spring.    Liv.     Natali  die  suo,  on  his  birth- 

'  So  also  terrae  and  mciniae. 

-  I'his,  the  original  construction  for  all  names  of  places,  has  been  retained  unchanged 
only  in  the  names  of  towns  and  in  a  few  other  words.  Most  names  of  places  have  as- 
sumed B,  preposition  with  the  Accusative  and  Ablative,  and  have  substituted  the  Loca- 
tive Ablative  with  b,  preposition  in  place  of  the  Locative;  see  411,  III. 

8  That  is,  the  Locative  is  used  if  any  such  form  exists;  if  not,  the  Locative  Abkitive 
supplies  its  place. 


V 


Ij 


230 


ABLA  TIVE. 


it 


day,  Nep.  Ilieme  et  aestate,  mm/i^er  anc?swmm^r.  Cic.  Solis  occasu,  a^ 
sunset  Caes.  Adventti  Caesaris,  on  the  arrival  of  Caesar,  Caes.  LudTs, 
at  the  time  of  the  games,  Cic.  Vix  decern  annis,  scarcely  in  ten  years.  Nep. 
His  vTgintI  annis,  within  these  twenty  years.    Cic. 

1.  Certain  relations  of  Time  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  with  in  or  de : 

In  tall  tempore,!  at  such  a  time  (i.  e.,  under  such  circumstances).  Li  v.  In 
diebus  proximis  decem,i  in  the  next  ten  days.  Sail.  Do  media  nocte,  in  (lit., 
from^  out  of)  the  middle  of  the  night.   Caes. 

2.  Certain  relations  of  Time  are  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  ad,  in, 
inter,  intra,  sub,  etc. : 

Ad  constitutam  diem,  at  the  appointed  day.  Cic.  Ad  cCnam  invitare  in 
posterum  diem,  to  invite  to  dinner  for  the  next  day.  Cic.  Intra  viginti  dies, 
within  tiventy  days.  Plant.  Inter  tot  annus,  within  so  many  years.  Cic. 
Sub  noctem,  toward  night,   Caes. 

430.  The  Interval  between  two  events  may  be  denoted  by 

the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  ante  or  post :  ^ 

Aliquot  post  menses  ^  occlsus  est,  he  was  put  to  death  some  months  after, 
Cic.  Post  dies  paucos  venit,  he  came  after  a  few  days.  Liv.  Panels  ante 
diebus,3  a  few  days  before.  Cic.  Homerus  annis  multis  fuit  ante  Romulum, 
Homer  lived  many  years  before  Romulus.  Cic.  Panels  diebus  post  ejus  mor- 
tem, a  few  days  after  his  death.  Cic.  Annis  quingentls  post, /ye  hundred 
years  after.  Cic.  Quartum  post  annum  quam  redierat,  four  year's  after  he 
had  returned.  Nep.  Nono  anno  postquam,  nine  years  after.  Nep.  Sexto 
anno  quam  erat  expulsus,  six  years  after  he  had  been  banished.    Nep. 

Note  1. — In  these  examples  observe — 

1)  That  the  numeral  may  be  either  cardinal,  as  in  the  sixth  example,  or  ordinal,  as  in 
the  last  three.* 

2)  That  with  the  Accusative  ante  and  pofit  either  precede  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
or  stand  between  them;  but  that  with  the  Ablative  they  either  follow  both,  or  stand 
between  them.^ 

8)  That  quam  may  follow  ante  and  post,  as  in  the  seventh  example;  may  be  united 
with  them,  as  in  the  eighth,  or  may  be  used  for  postquam,  as  in  the  ninth. 
Note  2.— The  Ablative  of  the  Relative  may  be  used  for  postquam: 
Quatriduo,  quo  occlsus  est,  fou^  days  after  he  was  killed.  Cic. 

1  The  Ablative  with  in  is  used  to  denote  (1)  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  and  (2) 
the  time  m  or  within  xchich.  In  the  second  sense  it  is  used  especially  after  numeral 
adverbs  and  in  designating  the  periods  of  life  :  his  in  die,  'twice  in  the  day';  in  pueri- 

tid^ '  in  boyhood,'  etc. 

2  In  two  instances  the  Ablative  with  ahhinc  is  used  like  the  Ablative  with  ante: 
Abhinc  triginta  diebus,  thirPy  days  before.  Cic. 

3  The  Accusative  after  ante  and  post  depends  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  Ablative 
is  explained  as  the  measure  of  difference  (423). 

*  Thus,  'five  years  after'  =  qulnque  annis  post,  or  quinto  an/no  post;  or  post  quln- 
que  anmos,  or  post  qulntu/ni  annmn  ;  or  with  post  between  the  numeral  and  the  noun, 
qulnque  post  annis.  etc. 

6  Any  other  arrangement  is  rare. 


f 


.- •" 


\.y 


V» 


ll. 


ABLATIVE. 


331 


Note  3.— The  time  since  an  event  may  be  denoted  by  the  Accusative  with  abhific  or 
ante,  or  by  the  Ablative  with  ante :  ^ 

Abhinc  annos  trecentos  fuit,  he  lived  three  hujidred  years  ago.  Cic.  Faucis  ante 
diebus  erupit  ex  urbe,  he  broke  out  qf  the  city  a  fe/w  days  ago.  Cic. 

RULE  XXXII.— Ablative  Absolute.' 

43 1 .  A  noun  and  a  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Abla- 
tive to  add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance : 

Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reigri  of  Servius  (Ser- 
vius  reigning).*  Cic.  Regibus  exactis,  consules  creSti  sunt,  after  the  ban- 
ishment of  the  kings,^  consuls  were  appointed.  Liv.  Equitatu  praemissO, 
subsequebatur,  having  sent  forward  his  cavalry^  he  followed.  Caes.  Reg- 
num  baud  satis  prosperum  neglecta  religiOne,  a  reign  not  sufficiently  pros- 
perous  because  religion  was  neglected.  Liv.  Perditis  rebus  omnibus  tamen 
virtiis  se  sustentare  potest,  though  all  things  are  lost,  still  virtue  is  able  to 
sustain  itself,  Cic.  Obsidibus  imperatis,  hos  Aeduls  tradit,**  having  de- 
manded hostages,  he  delivers  them  to  the  Aedui.   Caes. 

1.  The  Ablative  Absolute,  much  more  common  than  the  English  Nomina- 
tive Absolute,  generally  expresses  the  time^  cause^  or  some  attendant  circum^ 
stance  of  an  action. 

2.  This  Ablative  is  generally  best  rendered— (1)  by  a  noun  with  a  prepo- 
sition— in.,  during.^  aftet\  by.,  with,  through,  etc. ;  (2)  by  an  active  participle 
with  its  object ;  or  (3)  by  a  clause  with  tvhen,  while,  because,  if,  though,  etc. ;« 
see  examples  above. 

3.  A  connective  sometimes  accompanies  the  Ablative : 

Nisi  munitis  castris,  unless  the  camp  should  be  fortified.    Caes. 

4.  A  noun  and  an  adjective^  or  even  two  nounSy  may  be  in  the  Ablative 
Absolute  c"^ 


1  The  Accusative  is  explained  as  duration  of  time  (379),  the  Ablative  as  measure 
of  difference  (45J3). 

2  This  Ablative  is  called  absolute,  because  it  is  not  directly  dependent  for  its  con- 
struction upon  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.  Originally  Locative,  it  was  first  used  to 
denote  situation  or  time,  a  meaning  from  which  its  later  uses  may  be  readily  derived. 
Thus,  while  the  force  of  a  Locative  Ablative  is  apparent  in  Servio  regnante  a^  in  regi- 
bus exdctis,  it  is  recognized  without  difficulty  in  neglecta  rUigione  as  indicating  the. 
situation  or  state  of  things  in  which  the  reign  was  not  prosperous.  In  some  instances, 
however,  the  Ablative  Absolute  may  be  instrumental  or  causal. 

3  Or,  ichile  Servius  was  reigning  or  was  king, 

*  Or,  after  the  kings  were  banished. 

*  In  this  example  obsidibus  and  h^s  refer  to  the  same  persons.  This  is  unusual,  as 
in  this  construction  the  Ablative  generally  refers  to  some  person  or  thing  not  otherwise 
mentioned  in  the  clause  to  which  it  belongs. 

«  The  first  method  of  translation  comes  nearer  the  original  Latin  conception,  but  the 
other  methods  generally  accord  better  with  the  English  idiom. 

''  This  construction  is  peculiar  to  the  Latin.  In  the  corresponding  constructions  in 
Sanskrit,  Greek,  and  English,  the  present  participle  of  the  verb  '^  &eMs  used. 


233 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


233 


1 


Sereno  ciielo,  ivheii  ilie  shj  is  clear.  Sen.  Canlnio  c5n3ule,  in  the  consul- 
ship of  Caninins.    Cic. 

Note  1.— An  infinitive  or  clause  may  be  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a  neuter 
participle  or  adjective : 

Audito  Darium  movisse,  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  icithdraicn  (that 
Darius  had,  etc.,  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.  Curt.  Multi,  incerto  quid  vitarent, 
iuterierunt,  many,  uncertain  what  they  should  avoid  (what  they,  etc.,  being  uncertain), 

po'ished.  Liv. 

Note  ^.—K  participle  or  adjective  may  stand  alone  in  the  Ablative  Absolute : 
Multum  certato,  pervicit,  he  conquered  after  a  hard  struggle.^  Tac. 
Note  3.— Quisque  or  ipse  in  the  Nominative  may  accompany  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 
Multis  sibi  quisque  petentibus,  while  many  sought,  each  for  himself.  Sail.    Causa 

ipse  pro  se  dicta  damnatur,  having  himself  advocated  his  own  cause^  he  is  con- 

demned.  Liv. 

Note  4.— For  the  use  of  absente  and  praesente  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  with  a 

plural  noun  or  pronoun,  see  438,  6,  note. 

SECTION    VIII. 

CASES    WITH    PREPOSITIONS. 

RULE  XXXIII.— Cases  with  Prepositions. 

-    432.  The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with 
prepositions : ' 

Ad  amicum  scrips!,  I  have  written  to  afrie^id.  Cic.  In  curiam,  into  the 
senate-house.    Liv.     In  Italia,  in  Italy,   Nep.     Pro  castrls,  before  the  camp. 

433.  The  Accusative  is  used  with — 

Ad,  adversus  (adversum),  ante,  apud,  circa,  circum,  circiter,  cis,  citrS, 
contra,  erga,  extra.  Infra,  inter,  intra,  juxta,  ob,  penes,  per,  p5ne,  post, 
praeter,  prope,  propter,  secundum,  supra,  trans,  ultra,  versus ; 

Ad  urbem,  to  the  city.  Cic.  Adversus  deos,  toward  the  gods.  Cic.  Ante 
lUcem,  lefore  light.  Cic.  Apud  concilium,  in  the  presence  of  the  council.  Cic. 
Circa  forum,  around  the  forum.  Cic.  Citra  flumen,  on  this  side  of  the  river, 
Cic.  Contra  naturam,  contrary  to  nature.  Cic.  Intra  miiros,  within  the 
walls.  Cic.  Post  castra,  behind  the  camp.  Caes.  Secundum  niitUram,  ac- 
cording to  nature.   Cic.     Trans  Alpfis,  across  the  Alps.   Cic. 

Note  L—Exadverms  {urn)  also  occurs  with  the  Accusative : 

Y.x^.^Yevsas  e\xrQ.\ocMT[iy  over  against  tJiat  place.  Cic.    See  also  437. 

Note  'i.^Versus  {um)  and  usque,  as  adverbs,  often  accompany  prepositions,  es- 
pecially ad  and  in : 

Ad  oceanum  versus,  toward  the  ocean.  Caes.  Ad  meridiem  versus,  toward  the 
s.uth.  Liv.    Usque  ad  castra  hostium,  even  to  the  camp  of  the  enemy.  Caes. 


1  Literally,  it  ha/ving  been  much  contested.    The  participle  is  used  impersonally. 

2  On  the  general  subject  of  Prepositions  and  their  Use,  see  Roby,  II.,  pp.  351-456; 
Draeger,  I.,  pp.  574-665;  Kuhner,  II.,  pp.  355-432. 


Note  3. — For  propius,  prcxime,  propior,  and  prcximus,  with  the  Accusative,  see 
prope,  note  2,  under  I.,  below. 

Note  4. — For  compounds  of  prepositions,  see  373  and  376. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Accusative  deserve  notice :  ^ 

Ad,  TO,  the  opposite  of  aJ,  from — (1)  to,  toward,  till  ;  (2)  near,  at,  on: 
a  I  me.,  '  to  me,'  *  near  me,'  *  at  my  house ' ;  ad  urbem,  '  to  the  city,'  *  near  the 
city ' ;  ad  dextram, '  on  the  right ' ;  ad  multam  noctem, '  till  late  in  the  night ' ; 
fy ''  lucem,  *till  daybreak';  ad  hoc,  'besides  this,'  'moreover'  ;  ad  verbum, 
' '.vord  for  word';  ad  hunc  modum,  'after  this  manner';  ad  uUimum,  'at 
Jiist' ;  ad  Unum  omnes, '  all  to  a  man,'  '  all  without  exception.' 

Apud,  NEAR,  AT,  BEFORE,  IN  THE  PRESENCE  OF  I  apud  oppidum.,  '  near  or 
before  the  town ' ;  apud  me,  '  at  my  house  ' ;  sum  apud  me,  '  I  am  at  home ' 
or  '  I  am  in  my  right  mind '  ;  apud  Platbnem.,  '  in  the  works  of  Plato.' 

Ante,  BEFORE,  IN  FRONT  OF,  ABOVE,  IN  PREFERENCE  TO  '.    ante  SUOS   annOS, 

'  before  his  time,'  '  too  early ' ;  ante  tempus,  '  before  the  proper  time ' ;  ante 
annum,  '  a  year  before  ' ;  ante  urbem  conditam,  '  before  the  founding  of  the 
city'  ;  ante  alios pulcherrimus  omnes,  'the  most  beautiful  above  all  others.' 

Circum,  circa,  circiter ,2  round,  around,  about  :  circum  forum, 
'  around  the  forum ' ;  circa  se, '  around  or  with  himself  ;  circa  candem  horam, 
'about  the  same  hour' ;  circiter  meridiem,  'about  midday.' 

Note. — Circum,  the  oldest  of  these  forms,  is  used  only  of  place;  circa,  both  of 
place  and  of  time  ;  circiter,  rare  as  a  preposition,  chiefly  of  time.  They  are  all  freely 
used  as  adverbs:  circum  convenire,  'to  gather  around'';  circa  esse,''io  be  around'; 
circiter  pars  gwar^a, '  about  the  fourth  part.' 

Cis,  citra,^  on  this  side — cis  opposed  to  trans,  across,  on  the  other 
SIDE  ;  citrd  opposed  to  idtrd,  beyond  :  cisflu^men, '  on  this  side  of  the  stream '  ; 
ds  paucbs  dies,  '  within  a  few  days ' ;  citrd  v'eritdtem,,  '  short  of  the  truth '  ; 
citrd  auctbritntem,  '  without  authority.' 

Contra/,3  opposite  to,  over  against,  against,  contrary  to  :  contra  eds 
regiones,  '  opposite  to  those  regions' ;  contra  populum,  '  against  the  people  ' ; 
contra  naturam,  '  contrary  to  nature.' 

Erga,"*  TOWARD,  TO,  against:  ergd  parentes,  'toward  parents';  odium 
ergd  Romdnos,  '  hatred  to  the  Romans  ' ;  ergd  regem,  '  against  the  king.' 

£xtra,  outside,  without,  free  from,  except  :  extra  portam,  '  outside 
the  gate';  extra  culpam,  'without  fault,'  'free  from  fault';  extra  ducem, 
'  except  the  leader,'  '  besides  the  leader.' 

InfrS;,^  below,  under,  beneath,  less  titan,  after,  later  than,  opposed 
to  supra,  above  :  Infra  lUnam,  '  beneath  the  moon ' ;  Infra  rne,  '  below  me ' ; 
Infra  tres  pedes,  '  less  than  three  feet' ;  infra  Ly  cur  gum,  '  after  Lycurgus.' 

1  For  the /orm  and  meaning  of  prepositions  in  composition,  see  344,  5. 

2  These  three  forms  are  all  derived  from  circus,  'a  circle'  (i.  e.,  from  its  stem);  see 
304;  307,  note  1. 

'■^  These  are  often  adverbs. 

4  According  to  Vanicek,  from  e  and  the  root  reg  in  regO',  'in  the  direction  of  (lit., 
from  the  direction  of).  In  Tacitus,  sometimes  in  relation  to  :  erga  domum  suam, 
'in  reLition  to  his  own  household.' 

*  Infra  =  Infer  a  parte,  Mn  the  lower  part 


\ 


234 


CASES   WITH  FREPOSITIOXS. 


CASES   WITH  PREPOSITIONS, 


235 


Inter,!  between,  among,  in  the  midst  of  :  inter  nrhem  d  Tiberim,  *  be- 
tween the  cit}?  and  the  Tiber' ;  inter  bonds,  '  among  the  good  ' ;  inter  manus, 

*  in  the  hands,'  '  within  reach,'  *  tangible  ' ;  inter  nos,  '  between  us,'  '  in  con- 
fidence ' ;  inter  se  amdre,  ♦  to  love  one  another ' ;  inter  se  differre^ '  to  differ 
from  one  another' ;  inter  paucos,  inter  pauca,  *  especially,'  *  preeminently ' ; 
inter  paucos  disertus^  *  preeminently  eloquent' ;  inter purpur am  atqueaurum^ 

*  in  the  midst  of  purple  and  gold.' 

Intra,    WITHIN,    LESS    THAN,    BELOW,    OppOSCd    tO    extrd^    ON    THE    OUTSIDE, 

WITHOUT :  intra  castra^  *  within  the  camp ' ;  intra  me^  '  within  me '  ;  2  intra 
se^ '  in  his  mind '  or  '  in  their  minds ' ;  s  intra  centum,  *  less  than  one  hundred ' ; 
intra  modum,  '  within  the  limit ' ;  intra  fdmam,  '  below  his  reputation.' 

Ob,  BEFORE,  IN  VIEW  OF,  IN  REGARD  TO,  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  .*    ob  OCuloS,  '  bcforC 

one's  eyes' ;  ob  stultitiam  tuam,  *  in  view  of  your  folly,'  or  *  in  regard  to  your 
folly';  ob  hanc  rem,  4n  view  of  this  thing,'  'for  this  reason,'  *  on  this  ac- 
count' ;  quam  ob  rem,  *  in  view  of  which  thing,'  '  wherefore.' 

Per,4  THROUGH,  BY  THE  AID  OF  I  per  forum, '  through  the  forum ' ;  per  alios, 

*  through  others,'  'by  the  aid  of  others' ;  per  se,  'by  his  own  efforts,'  also 
'  in  himself,'  '  in  itself  ;  per  mctum,  '  through  fear' ;  per  aetdtem,  '  in  conse- 
quence of  age ' ;  per  ludum,  '  sportively ' ;  per  mm,  '  violently  ' ;  per  me  licet, 
'  it  is  allowable  as  far  as  I  am  concerned '  (i.  e.,  I  make  no  opposition). 

Post,  BEHIND,  AFTER,  SINCE  I  post  montem,  'behind  the  mountain';  post 
dedicdtibnem  templi,  '  after  the  dedication  of  the  temple '  ;  post  hominum 
memoriam,  '  since  the  memory  of  man.' 

Praeter,5  before,  along,  past,  by,  beyond,  besides,  except,  contrary 
to:  praeter  oculos,  'before  their  eyQ&^ -,  praeter  ordm,  'along  the  coast'; 
praeter  ceteros, '  beyond  others,'  '  more  than  others ' ;  praeter  hafc  =  praeter-ed, 
'  besides  these  things,'  '  moreover ' ;  p'aeter  me,  '  except  me  ' ;  praeter  spem^ 
'  contrary  to  expectation.'' 

Prope,  propter,  near,  near  by.  Prope,  near;  propter  ^prope- 
ter,  a  strengthened  form  oi prope,^  very  near,  alongside  of,  also  in  view  of, 
ON  ACCOUNT  OF  I  propc  Tiostes,  '  near  the  enemy  ' ;  prope  metum,  '  near  to  fear,' 
'  almost  fearful ' ;  propter  mare,  '  near  the  sea ' ;  proptet*  tim&rem,  '  on  account 
of  fear ' ;  propter  se,  '  on  his  own  account,'  '  on  their  own  account.' 

Note  1.— Prope,  as  an  adverb,  is  sometimes  combined  with  <7,  ah,  or  ad:  prope 
a  Sicilia,  'near  Sicily,'  'not  far  from  Sicily';  prope  ad  partus,  'near  to  the  gates.' 

Note  2.— Like  prope,  the  derivatives  propius  and  proxime,  and  sometimes  even 
propior  and  proximus,  admit  the  Accusative :  ^ 

Propius  periculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.    Proximo  deos,  very  near  to  Vie  gods. 


1  Formed  from  in  by  the  ending  ter,  like  prae-ter  from  prae  (434, 1.),  prop-ter 
from  prope  (433, 1.),  and  suh-ter  from  sub  (435, 1.). 

*  Often  equivalent  to  in  meo  animO,  '  in  my  mind.' 

5  Sometimes,  in  his  country,  or  in  their  country. 

*  In  origin  kindred  to  the  Greek  napd. 

6  Formed  from  prae  (434,  I.),  like  in-ter  from  in ;  see  inter,  with  foot-note. 

*  See  inter,  with  foot-note. 

'  Perhaps  by  a  construction  according?  to  sense,  following  the  analogy  o^ prope,  though 
in  most  cases  a  preposition  may  readily  be  supplied. 


< 


Cic.  Propior  montem,  nearer  to  tlie  mountain.  Sail.  Proximus  mare,  nearest  to  the 
sea.  Caes. 

Secundum,!  following,  next  after,  next  behind,  alongside  of,  con- 
forming TO,  ACCORDING  TO,  IN  FAVOR  OF :  sccundum  dram^  '  behind  the  altar' ; 
secundum  deos,  '  next  after  the  gods '  ;  secundum,  ludos^  '  after  the  games ' ; 
secundum  flumen,  '  along  the  river ' ;  secundum  ndturam^  '  according  to  na- 
ture,' '  following  nature ' ;  secundum  causam  nostram^  '  in  favor  of  our  cause.'  ^ 

Supra/,^   ON   THE    TOP,  ABOVE,    BEFORE,  TOO    HIGH    FOR  ;    OppOSCd   tO   Infrd, 

below:  suprd  lunam,  'above  the  moon';  suprd  hanc  memoriam,  'before 
our  time ' ;  *  suprd  hominem,  *  too  high  for  a  man.' 

TrS/ns,  ACROSS,  on  the  other  side,  opposed  to  m,  on  this  side  :  trdns 
Bhenum,  '  across  the  Ehine  ' ;  trdns  Alpes,  '  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps.' 

UltrS;,  BEYOND,   ACROSS,    ON   THE    OTHER    SIDE,    MORE   THAN,    LONGER  THAN, 

AFTER,  opposed  to  citrd,  on  this  side  :  ultrd  eum  locum, '  beyond  that  place ' ; 
ultrd  eum,  *  beyond  him' ;  ultrd plgnus,  '  more  than  a  pledge  ' ;  Ultrd  jidem^ 
'  beyond  belief,'  '  incredible ' ;  ultrd  puerlUs  annos^  '  after  {beyond)  the  years 
of  boyhood.' 

434.  The  Ablative  is  used  with — 

A  or  ab  (abs),  absque,  coram,  cum,  de, 

e  or  ex,  prae,  pro,  sine,  tenus. 

Ab  urbe,  from  the  city.  Caes.  Coram  conventu,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembly.  Nep.  Cum  Antiocho,  with  Antiochus.  Cic.  Do  foro,  from,  the 
forum.   Cic.     Ex  Asia,  out  of  Asia.   Nep.     Sine  corde,  without  a  heart,   Cic. 

Note  i. — Many  verbs  compounded  with  ab,  de,  ex,  or  super  admit  the  Ablative 
dependent  upon  the  preposition,  but  the  preposition  is  often  repeated,^  or  some  other 
preposition  of  kindred  meaning  is  used  : 

Abire  magistratii,  to  retire  from  office.  Tac.  Pug-nfi  exccdunt,  they  retire  from  the 
battle.  Caes.  De  vita  decedere,  to  depart  from  life.  Cic.  Decedere  ex  Asia,  to  depart 
out  of  Asia.  Cic. 

Note  2.— A  and  e  are  used  only  before  consonants,  ab  and  ex  before  either  vowels  or 
consonants.    Abs  is  antiquated,  except  before  te. 

Note  8. — For  ctwi  appended  to  the  Ablative  of  a  personal  pronoun  or  of  a  relative, 
see  184,  6,  and  187,  2. 

Note  4. — Tenus  follows  its  case.  In  its  origin  it  is  the  Accusative  of  a  noun,^  and 
as  such  it  often  takes  the  Genitive : 

Collo  tenus,  up  to  the  neck.  Ov.    Lumborum  tenus,  as  far  as  the  loins.  Cic. 

1  Properly  the  neuter  of  secundus,  *  following,' '  second' ;  but  secvmdus  is  a  gerund- 
ive from  sequor,  formed  like  dicundus  from  dico  (339).  For  the  change  of  ^z^  to  c 
before  u  in  sec-undus  for  seqv^undus,  see  26,  foot-note. 

^  Like  the  adjective  secundus  in  ventus  secundus, '  a  favoring  wind' — one  that  follows 
us  on  our  course;  fliimine  secundo,  'with  a  favoring  current'  (i.  e.,  down  the  stream). 

^  Suprd  =  superd  parte, '  on  the  top.' 

*  Literally,  before  this  memory.    For  hlc  meaning  my  or  our,  see  450,  4,  note  1. 

*  Though  in  such  cases  the  first  element  of  the  compound  is  not  strictly  a  preposi- 
tion, but  an  adverb  (344,  with  foot-note).  Thus,  in  de  mid  decedere,  de  in  the  verb 
retains  its  adverbial  force,  so  that,  strictly  speaking,  the  preposition  is  used  only  once. 

*  From  the  root  tan,  ten,  seen  in  ten-dO,  ten-eo,  and  in  the  Greek  reij'-w. 


s 


236 


CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 


CASES    WITH  PRKPOSITJOKS. 


237 


\ii 


w 


Note  5.— For  the  Ablative  with  or  without  de^  as  used  with  facio,  fiO^  and  %um^  see 
415,  III.,  note. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  prepositions  with  the  Ablative  deserve  notice : 

A,  ab,i  abs,  from,  by,  in,  on,  on  the  side  of.  1.  Of  Place  ;  from,  on, 
ON  THE  SIDE  OF:  d  GalUd^  'from  GauP  ;  ab  ortu,  'from  the  east' ;  a f route, 
'  in  front'  (lit.,  from  the  front) ;  a  tergo,  '  in  the  rear ' ;  ab  Seqnanls,  'on  the 
side  toward  the  Sequani.'  2.  Of  Time  ;  from,  after:  ab  hoi^d  tertid,  'frcm 
the  third  hour ' ;  d  puerb^  '  from  boyhood ' ;  ab  cohortdtidne,  '  after  exhort- 
ing.' 3.  In  other  relations ;  from,  by,  in,  against:  d  poend  liber,  'free  from 
punishment '  ;  missus  ab  Syrdcusls,  '  sent  by  the  Syracusans ' ;  ab  eqvitdtfi 
Jinnus,  '  strong  in  {Ml.,  from)  cavalry '  ;  ab  animo  aeger,  'diseased  in  mind  ' ; 
ab  els  defendere,  '  to  defend  against  {from)  them ' ;  esse  ab  aliquo,  '  to  be  on 
one's  side '  ;  d  nbbv^,  '  in  our  interest ' ;  servus  dpedibus,  '  a  footman.' 

l^OTiL.— Absque,  rare  in  classical  prose,  is  found  chiefly  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

Cum,2  with,  in  most  of  its  English  meanings :  cum  patre  habitdre,  '  to 
live  with  one's  father';  Caesar  cum  qulnque  legionibus,  ^  Caesar  with  five 
legions ' ;  consul  cum  summo  imperio,  '  the  consul  with  supreme  command ' ; 
servus  cum  t'elo,  '  a  slave  with  a  weapon,'  '  an  armed  slave '  ;  cum  prlmd  luce, 
'  with  the  early  dawn,'  '  at  the  early  dawn ' ;  cbnsentlre  cum  aliqub,  '  to  agree 
with  any  one' ;  cum  Caesare  agere,  'to  treat  with  Caesar' ;  cum  aliqub  dlmi- 
cdre,  '  to  contend  with  any  one ' ;  multls  cv.m  lacrimls,  '  with  many  tears ' ; 
cum  virtue,  '  virtuously ' ;  cum  eb  vt,  or  cum  eb  quod,  '  with  this  condition 
that,'  *  on  condition  that.'    See  also  419,  III. 

De,  DOWN  from,  from,  of.  1.  Of  Place;  down  from,  from:  d^  caelb, 
'down  from  heaven';  de  forb,  'from  the  forum'  ;  de  mdjbribus  audire,  'to 
hear  from  one's  elders.'  2.  Of  Time  ;  from,  out  of,  during,  in,  at,  after  ; 
deprandib, '  from  breakfast ' ;  de  die,  '  by  day,'  '  in  the  course  of  the  day ' ;  d^ 
tertid  vigilid,  '  during  the  third  watch' ;  de  medid  node,  '  at  about  midnight.' 
8.  In  other  relations;  from,  of,  for,  on,  concerning,  according  to:  di 
summb  genere,  'of  the  highest  rank'  ',  factum  de  marmore  signum,  'a  bust 
made  of  marble' ;  liomo  de  pl'ebe,  'a  man  of  plebeian  rank,'  'a plebeian'; 
triumphus  de  Gallia,  '  a  triumph  over  {concerning)  Gaul ' ;  gravl  de  causd, 
'  for  a  grave  reason ' ;  de  more  vetustb,  '  according  to  ancient  custom ' ;  de  in- 
dustrld,  '  on  purpose' ;  de  integrb,  '  anew.'     See  also  416,  III.,  note  2. 

E,  ex,3  OUT  of,  from.  1.  Of  Place  ;  out  of,  from,  in,  on  :  ex  urbe,  '  from 
the  city,'  '  out  of  the  city  ' ;  ex  equbpugndre,  '  to  fight  on  horseback ' ;  ex  vin^ 
culls,  'in  chains'  (lit.,  out  of  oy  from  chains)',  ex  itinere,  'on  the  march.' 
2.  Of  Time  ;  from,  directly  after,  since  :  ex  eb  tempore,  '  from  that  time  ' ; 
ec  tempore  dlcere,  '  to  speak  extemporaneously '  ;  diem  ex  die,  '  from  day  to 
day.'  3.  In  other  relations ;  from,  out  of,  of,  according  to,  on  account  of, 
through  :  ex  vulneribus  perlre,  'to  perish  of  (because  of)  wounds'  •  unvs  e 
fillls,  '  one  of  the  sons ' ;  ex  commutdtibne,  '  on  account  of  the  change ' ;  ex 
cbnsuetudine,  '  according  to  custom '  ;  e  vestigib,  '  on  the  spot ' ;  ex  parti 
mdgnd,  '  in  great  part ' ;  ex  impravlsb,  '  unexpectedly.' 

»  Greek  dTro.        «  Compare  Greek  f uV,  o-vv,  tcith.        3  Compare  Greek  ef,  out  of. 


\ 


I! 


\ 


1. 


I 


Prae,  before,  in  comparison  with,  in  consequence  of,  because  of  :  i 
prae  manu  esse,  '  to  be  at  hand ' ;  p7'ae  manU  habere,  '  to  have  at  hand ' ;  prae 
seferre,  '  to  show,  display,  exhibit ' ;  prae  nbbls  bedtus,  '  happy  in  comparison 
with  us  ' ;  nbn  prae  lacrimls  ^  posse,  '  not  to  be  able  because  of  tears.' 

Pro,  BEFORE ;  IN  behalf  of,  in  defence  of,  for  ;  instead  of,  as  ;  in 
return  for,  for  ;  according  to,  in  proportion  to  :  prb  castrls,  '  before  the 
camp ' ;  prb  Ubertdte,  '  in  defence  of  liberty ' ;  prb  patrid,  '  for  the  country  ' : 
prb  cbnsule=  prbcbnsul,  'a  proconsul'  (one  acting  for  a  consul)',  prb  ccrto 
hah'ere,  '  to  regard  as  certain ' ;  prb  eb,  quod,  '  for  the  reason  that,'  '  because '  ; 
prb  tud  prudentid,  '  in  accordance  with  your  prudence '  ;  prb  imperio,  *  im- 
periously '  ;  prb  se  quisque,  '  each  according  to  his  ability.' 

435.  The  Accusative  or  Ablative  is  used  with — 

In,         sub,         subter,         super: 

In  Asiam  profugit,  he  fled  into  Asia,  Cic.  Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Han- 
nibal was  in  Italy.  Nep.  Sub  montem,  toicard  the  mountain.  Caes.  Sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.  Li  v.  Subter  togam,  under  the  toga.  Liv. 
Subter  testudine,  under  a  tortoise  or  shed.  Verg.  Super  Numidiam,  beyond 
Numidia.   Sail.     Hue  super  re  scribam,  I  shall  write  on  this  subject.    Cic. 

Note  1. — In  and  sub  take  the  Accusative  after  verbs  implying  motion,  the  Ablative 
after  those  Implying  rest;  see  examples. 

Note  2.— Subter  and  super  generally  take  the  Accusative;  but  supper,  when  it  means 
concerning,  of,  on  (of  a  subject  of  discourse),  takes  the  Ablative ;  see  examples. 

I.  The  following  uses  of  m,  sub,  subter,  and  super  deserve  notice : 

In,  with  the  Accusative,  into,  to,  toward,  till.  1.  Of  Place ;  into,  to, 
toward,  against,  in  ;  i7'e  in  urbem,  '  to  go  into  the  city ' ;  in  Persds,  '  into 
the  country  of  the  Persians ' ;  in  dram,  '  to  the  altar ' ;  unum  in  locum^  con- 
'venlre,  'to  meet  in  one  place'  (380,  with  note).  2.  Of  Time ;  into,  to,  for, 
till:  in  noctem,  'into  the  night' ;  in  multam  noctem,  'until  late  at  night' ; 
in  diem,  '  into  the  day,'  also  '  for  the  day' ;  in  dies,  '  from  day  to  day,'  '  daily ' ; 
invltdre  inposterum  diem,  '  to  invite  for  the  following  day.'  '  3.  In  other  rela- 
tions ;  INTO,  against,  toward,  ON,  FOR,  AS,  IN  :  dlvlsa  in  partes  tres,  '  divided 
into  three  parts '  ;  in  hostem,  '  against  the  enemy ' ;  in  id  certdmen,  '  for  this 
contest ' ;  in  memoriam  patris,  '  m  memory  of  his  father ' ;  in  spem  pdcis,  '  in 
the  hope  of  peace ' ;  in  rem  esse,  '  to  be  useful,'  '  to  be  to  the  purpose.' 

In,  with  the  Ablative,  in,  on,  at.  1.  Of  Place ;  in,  at,  within,  among, 
UPON :  in  urbe,  '  in  the  city ' ;  in  Per  sis,  '  among  the  Persians ' ;  sapientis- 
simus  in  septem,  'the  wisest  among  or  of  the  seven.'  2.  Of  Time;  in,  at, 
during,  in  the  course  of  :  in  tdll  tempore,  '  at  such  a  time ' ;  in  tempore,  "  in 
time.'  3.  In  other  relations  ;  in,  on,  upon,  in  the  case  of  :  esse  in  armls,  '  to 
be  in  arms ' ;  in  summb  timbre^  '  in  the  greatest  fear ' ;  in  hoc  homine,  '  in  the 
case  of  this  man.' 

Sub,  with  the  Accusative,  under,  beneath,  toward,  up  to,  about,  diheot- 

1  This  causal  meaning  is  developed  from  the  local.  The  noun  in  the  Ablative  is 
thought  of  as  an  obstacle  or  hindrance:  nbn  prae  lacrimls  posse,  'not  to  be  able  be- 
fon.  in  the  presence  of  because  ofswoh  a  hindrance  as  tears.'' 


238 


CASES   WITH  PEEPOSITIONS. 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES, 


239 


LY  AFTEE :  ml  jugiim  mittere^  *  to  send  under  the  yoke ' ;  suh  nostram  aciem^ 

*  toward  our  line  * ;  suh  astra^  '  up  to  the  stars ' ;  8uh  vesperum^  *  toward  even- 
ing'; siib  eds  lltterds^  'directly  after  that  letter';  suh  imperium  reddctus^ 
'  brought  under  one's  sway.' 

Sub,  with  the  Ablative,  under,  at,  at  the  foot  of,  in,  about  :  siih  terra, 

*  under  the  earth  ' ;  suh  pellibus,  '  in  tents ' ;  ^  sub  hrumd,  '  at  the  time  of  the 
winter  solstice  ' ;  suh  luce,  '  at  dawn ' ;  suh  lioc  verho,  '  under  this  word ' ;  suh 
iudice,  '  in  the  hands  of  the  judge  '  (i.  e.,  not  yet  decided). 

Note. — Subter,  a  strengthened  form  2  of  sub,  meaning-  under,  generally  trikes  the 
Accusative^  though  it  admits  the  Ablative  in  poetry:  sfuhter  mare,  *  under  the  sea'; 
suhter  togam^ '  under  the  toga ' ;  suiter  densd  testadine^  *  under  a  compact  testudo.' 

Super,  with  the  Accusative,  over,  upon,  above  :  sedens  super  arma,  *  sit- 
ting upon  the  arms'  ;  snper  Numidiam,  'beyond  Numidia' ;  super  sexdgintd 
mllia,  *  upward  of  sixty  thousand';  super  ndturam,  'supernatural';  super 
omnia,  'above  all.' 

Super,  with  the  Ahlative,  upon,  at,  during,  concerning,  of,  on  :  strdto 
super  ostrb,  'upon  purple  couches' (lit.,  'upon  the  spread p^irple) ',  nocte  super 
media,  'at  midnight';  hdc  super  re  scrihere,  'to  write  upon  this  subject'; 
mtilta  super  Priani'd  rogitdns,  '  asking  many  questions  about  Priam.' 

Note, — The  Ablative  is  rare  with  super^  except  when  it  means  concerning,  about^  on 
(of  the  subject  of  discourse).    It  is  then  the  regular  construction. 

436.  Prepositions  were  originally  adverbs  (307,  note  1),  and  many  of 
the  words  generally  classed  as  prepositions  are  often  used  as  advet^bs  ^  in 
classical  authors : 

Ad  milibus  quattuor,  about  four  thousand,  Caes.  Omnia  contra  circaque, 
all  things  opposite  and  around,  Liv.  Prope  a  Sicilia,  not  far  from  Sicily, 
Cic.  Juxta  positus,  placed  near  by,  Nep.  Supra,  infra  esse,  to  be  above,  be- 
low,  Cic.    Nee  citra  nee  ultra,  neither  on  this  side  nor  on  that  side,  Ov. 

437.  Conversely,  several  words  generally  classed  as  adverbs  are  some- 
times used  as  prepositions.     Such  are — 

1.  With  the  Accusative,  propius,  proxime,  vrldie,  postridi^,  usque,  de- 
super  : 

Propius  perlculum,  nearer  to  danger.  Liv.  Pridie  Idus,  the  day  before 
the  Ides.  Cic.    Usque  pedes,  e'cen  to  the  feet.  Curt. 

2.  With  the  Ablative,  intus,  palam,  procul,  simul  (poetic) : 

Tali  intus  templo,  within  such  a  temple,  Verg.  Palam  populo,  in  the 
presence  of  the  people,  Liv.  Frocul  castrl&y  at  a  distance  from  the  camp,  Tac. 
Simul  his,  with  these,  Hor. 

3.  With  the  Accusative  or  Ablative,  clam,  Insuper  : 

Clam  patrem,  without  the  father^  s  knowledge.  Plant.  Clam  vobis,  without 
your  knowledge,   Caes. 

—  ^ 

1  That  is,  in  camp  (lit.,  under  skins), 

2  Formed  from  suh,  like  in-te/r  from  in;  see  433, 1.,  inter,  foot-note. 
*  They  are,  in  fact,  sometimes  adverbs  and  sometimes  prepositions. 


CHAPTER    III. 
SYNTAX   OF   ADJECTIVES. 


RULE   XXXIV.— Agreement  of  Adjectives. 

438.  An  adjective  agrees  witli  its  noun  in  gender, 
NUMBER,  and  CASE : 

Fortuna  caeca  Q^i,  fortune  is  blind.  Cic.  Yerae  amicitiae,  true  friend- 
ships. Cic.  Magister  optimus,  the  best  teacher.  Cic.  Qua  in  re  privStas 
injurias  ultus  est,  in  which  thing  he  avenged  private  wrongs.  Caes.  Sol 
oriens  diem  conficit,  the  sun  rising  makes  the  day.    Cic. 

1.  Adjective  Pronouns  and  Participles  are  Adjectives  in  construction,  and 
accordingly  conform  to  this  rule,  as  in  qua  in  re,  sol  oriens, 

2.  When  an  adjective  unites  with  the  verb  (generally  sum)  to  form  the 
predicate,  as  in  caeca  est,  •  is  blind,*  it  is  called  a  Predicate  Adjective  (360, 
note  1);  but  when  it  simply  qualifies  a  noun,  as  in  verae  amicitiae,  'true 
friendships,'  it  is  called  an  Attributive  Adjective. 

3.  Agreement  with  Clause,  etc— An  adjective  may  agree  with  any  word 
or  words  used  substantively,  as  o. pronoun,  clause,  infinitive,  etc. : 

Quis  clarior,  who  is  more  illustrious  ?  Cic.  Certum  est  liberos  amarl,  it 
is  certain  that  children  are  loved.    Quint.     See  43,  note. 

Note.— An  adjective  agreeing  with  a  clause  is  sometimes  plural,  as  in  Greek : 

TJt  Aeneas  jactetur  nota  tibi,  how  Aeneas  is  tossed  about  is  known  to  you.  Yerg. 

4.  A  Neuter  Adjective  used  as  a  substantive  sometimes  supplies  the  place 
of  a  Predicate  Adjective  :  1 

Mors  est  extremum,  death  is  the  last  thing.  Cic.  Triste  lupus  stabulis, 
a  wolf  is  a  sad  thing  for  the  flocks,  Verg. 

5.  A  Neuter  Adjective  with  a  Genitive  is  often  used  instead  of  an  ad- 
jective with  its  noun,  especially  in  the  Nominative  and  Accusative : 

Multum  operae,  much  service.'^  Cic.  Id  temporis,  that  time.'^  Cic.  Vana 
T(irum,vai?i  things.^  Hor.  OpsLda.  yiarum,  dark  streets,  Y erg.  Strata  viarum, 
paved  streets.  Verg.    See  also  397,  3,  note  4. 

6.  Synesis. 3— Sometimes  the  adjective  or  participle  conforms  to  the  real 
meaning  of  its  noun,  without  regard  to  grammatical  gender  or  number: 

Pars  certare  paratl,-»  a  part  (some),  prepared  to  contend.  Verg.  Inspe- 
ranti  *  nobis,  to  us  (me)  not  expecting  it.  Catul.  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris 
erant  expulsi,*  Demosthenes  with  the  others  had  been  banished.   Nep. 

1  As  in  Greek :  ovk  ayaBov  iroXvKoipavCrj,  the  rule  of  the  many  is  not  a  good  thing. 

2  Multum  operae  =  multa  opera  or  multam  operam;  id  temporis  =  id  tempus; 
vdna  rerum  =  vdnae  res  or  vdnds  res. 

3  A  construction  according  to  sense;  see  636,  IV.,  4. 

*  Pardtl  is  plural,  to  conform  to  the  meaning  of  pars,  'part,'  'some,'  plural  in  sense; 


7 


240 


AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


241 


Note.— In  the  Ablative  Absolute  (431)  absente  and  praescnte  occur  in  early  Latin 
with  a  plural  noun  or  pronoun  :  ^ 

Praesente  ^  ibus  (eis*),^  in  their  p^^esence  (lit.,  they  heing  present).  Plaut.  Pnie- 
sente  testibus,  in  the  presence  ofwitneissea.  Plaut. 

7.  Agreement  with  one  Noun  for  another. — When  a  noun  governs  an- 
other in  the  Genitive,  an  adjective  belonging  in  sense  to  one  of  the  two  nouns, 
sometimes  agrees  with  the  other: 

Majora  (for  mdjorum)  rerum  inltia,  the  leginnings  of  greater  tilings.  Liv. 
Cursus  justi  {Justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river,   Liv. 

Note  1. — In  the  passive  forms  of  verbs  the  participle  sometimes  agrees  with  a 
predicate  noun  or  with  an  appositive  ;  see  463. 

Note  2. — An  adjective  or  participle  predicated  of  an  Accusative  is  sometimes  attracted 
into  the  Nominative  to  agree  with  the  subject : 

Ostendit  so  dextra  (for  dextram\  she  shows  herself  favorahle.  Verg. 

439.  An  adjective  or  participle,  belonging  to  two  or  more 

NOUNS,  may  agree  with  them  all  conjointly.,  or  may  agree  with  one 

and  be  understood  with  the  others : 

Castor  et  Pollux  visl  sunt,  Castor  and  Pollux  were  seen.  Cic.  Dubitare 
visus  est  Sulpicius  et  Cotta,  Stclpicius  and  Cotta  seemed  to  doubt,  Cic.  Temeri- 
tas  ignSratiOque  vitiosa  est,  rashness  and  ignorance  are  bad.   Cic. 

1.  The  Attributive  Adjective  generally  agrees  with  the  nearest  noun: 
AgrI  omnC'S  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas,   Cic.     Cuncta  maria  terraeque, 

all  seas  and  lands.    Sail. 

2.  A  plural  adjective  or  participle,  agreeing  with  two  or  more  nouns  of 
different  genders,  is  generally  7nasculine  when  the  nouns  denote  persons 
or  sentient  beings,  and  in  other  cases  generally  neuter : 

Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead.  Ter.  HonOres, 
vIctOriae  fortuita  sunt,  honors  and  victories  are  accidental  things.  Cic.  Labor 
voluptasque  inter  se  sunt  juncta,  labor  and  pleasure  are  joined  together.   Liv. 

Note. — When  nouns  denoting  sentient  beings  are  combined  with  those  denoting 
thi7igs,  the  plural  adjective  or  participle  in  agreement  with  them  sometimes  takes  tlie 
gender  oi  the  former  and  sometimes  of  the  latter.^  and  sometimes  is  neuter  irrespective 
of  the  gender  of  the  nouns  : 

Rex  regiaque  clussis  profecti  sunt,  tJie  king  and  the  royal  fleet  set  out.  Liv.  Kegem 
regnumque  sua  futura  sciunt,  they  know  that  the  king  and  the  kingdom  uill  be  theirs. 
Liv.  Inimica  ^  inter  se  sunt  libera  civitas  et  rCx,  a  free  state  and  a  king  are  Jiostile  to 
each  other.  Liv. 

3.  With  nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects,  the  adjective  or  participle  is 
often  neuter,  irrespective  of  the  gender  of  the  nouns : 

Labor  et  dolor  sunt  finitima,  labor  and  pain  are  Jcindred  (things).   Cic. 

Inspirantl  is  singular,  because  nobis  is  here  applied  to  one  person,  the  speaker  (440, 
note  2);  expulSi  is  plural,  because  Demosthenes  cum  ceteris  means  Demosthenes  and 
the  others. 

1  In  this  construction  absente  and  praesente  appear  to  be  treated  as  adverbs. 

3  See  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

«  Perhaps  best  explained  sub  iantivcly— things  hostile;  see  438,  4. 


t  I 


'  \: 


Nox  atque  praeda  hostis  remorata  sunt,  night  and  plunder  detained  the  enemy. 

Sail. 

4.  Two  OR  more  adjectives  in  the  singular  may  belong  to  a  plural  noun : 
Prima  et  vicesima  legiOnes,  the  first  and  the  twentieth  legions,   Tac. 

Note.— -In  the  same  way  two  or  more  praenomina  ^  in  the  singular  may  bo  com- 
bined with  a  family  name  in  the  plural ; 

Gnaeus  et  Publius  Sclpiones,  Gnaeus  and  Publius  Scipio,  Cic.  Publius  et  Servius 
Bullae,  Publius  and  Servius  Sulla,  Sail. 

Use  of  Adjectives. 

440.  The  adjective  in  Latin  corresponds  in  its  general  use  to 
the  adjective  in  English. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  an  adjective  may  qualify  the  complex  idea 
formed  by  a  noun  and  another  adjective : 

Duae  potentissimae  gcntes,  two  very  powerful  races,  Liv.  Magnum  ae» 
alienum,  a  large  debt.  Cic.  Naves  longas  triginta  veteres,  thirty  old  vessels 
of  war,  Liv.2 

Note. — In  general  no  connective  is  used  when  adjectives  are  combined,  as  in  duae 
potentissimae  gentes,  etc.;  but  if  the  first  adjective  is  multl  or  plUrimi^  the  connective 
is  usually  inserted : 

Multae  et  magnae  cogitationes,  many  great  thoughts.  Cic.  Multa  et  praeclara  fa- 
cinora,  many  illustrious  deeds.  SalL 

2.  Prolepsis  or  Anticipation. — An  adjective  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
noun  to  denote  the  result  of  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb : 

Submersas^  obrue  puppes,  overwhelm  and  sink  the  ships  (lit.,  overwhelm 
the  sunken  ships),  Verg.  Scuta  latentia^  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden 
shields,  Verg. 

Note  1.— Certain  adjectives  often  designate  a  particular  part  of  an  object:  prima 
nox,  the  first  part  of  the  night ;  media  aestute,  in  the  middle  of  summer;  summus  mbns^ 
the  top  (highest  part)  of  the  mountain. 

Note  2.— The  adjectives  thus  used  are  primus^  mediivs^  ultimus^  extremus^  postre- 
mus^  intimus,  summu^^  Infimus.,  Imus.,  supremuSy  riliquus,  cetera^  etc. 

Note  8.— In  the  poets,  in  Livy,  and  in  late  prose  writers,  the  neuter  of  these  adjec- 
tives with  a  Genitive  sometimes  occurs : 

Libyae  extrema,  the  frontiers  of  Libya.  Verg.  Ad  ultimum  inopiae  (for  ad  ultimam 
inopiam),  to  extreme  destitution.  Liv. 

Note  4.— Adjectives  are  often  combined  with  res:  res  adversae,  ndYerBity ;  risse- 
cundae,  prosperity;  res  novae,  revolution;  respublica^  republio. 


1  For  Roman  names,  see  649. 

2  Here  duae  qualifies  not  simply  gentes,  but  potentissimae  gentis;  magnum  quali- 
fies aes  alienum,  *debt'  (lit.,  money  belonging  to  another)',  veteres  qualifies  naves 
longas,  'vessels  of  war'  (lit.,  'long  vessels'),  while  triginta  qualifies  the  still  more  pom- 
plex  expression,  naves  longas  veteres. 

3  Observe  that  submersds  gives  the  result  of  the  action  denoted  by  obrue,  and  is  not 
applicable  to  puppes  until  that  action  is  performed ;  latentia  likewise  gives  the  result 
of  condunt. 

11 


k''r> 


"Si^  •• 


243 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES, 


441.  Adjectives  and  participles  are  often  used  substantively  :* 

Bonl^  the  good ;  mortaUs,  mortals ;  dbctl,  the  learned  ;  sapientes,  the  wise ; 
rmiltl^  many  persons;  muUa,  many  things;  praefectus^  a  prefect ;«  ndtus^  a  sou.» 

1.  In  the  plural,  masculine  adjectives  and  participles  often  designate  persons,  and 
neuter  adjectives  things :  fortes,  ■^e  brave;  dlvitea,  the  rich;  panperis,  the  poor; 
multh  many;  pauci,  few;  omnes,  all;  mei,  my  friends;  discmtes,  learners;  spectantes, 
spectators ;/i^^r/m,  future  events;  Utilia,  useful  things;  W2ea,  nostra,  my  things,  our 
things;  omnia,  all  things;  haec,  ilia,  these  things,  those  things. 

2.  In  the  singular,  adjectives  and  participles  are  occasionally  used  substantively, 
especially  in  the  Genitive,  or  in  the  Accusative  or  Ablative  with  a  preposition :  ddctii8^ 
a  learned  man;  adulescens,  a  young  man;  'verum,  a  true  thing,  the  truth;  /ahum,  a 
falsehood;  nihil  sincerl,  noi\img  of  sincerity,  nothing  sincere;  nihil  hmndnl,  nothing 
human;  nihil riliqul,  nothing  left;  3  aliquid  nov'i,  something  new;  dprlmo,  from  the 
beginning;  ad  extremum,  to  the  end;  ad  8ummum,  to  the  highest  point;  de  integro, 
afresh;  de  *vwprM;?«(7,  unexpectedly;  ex  aequo,  in  like  manner;  in  praesentl,  &t  pres- 
ent; infaturum,  for  the  future;  pro  certo,  as  certain.-» 

Note  1.— For  the  neuter  participle  with  opus  and  iisus,  see  414,  IV.,  note  3. 
Note  2.— f^or  the  use  of  adjectives  instead  of  nouns  in  the  Genitive,  see  396,  note  2. 

3.  A  few  substantives  are  sometimes  used  as  adjectives,  especially  verbal  nouns  in 
tor  and  trlx:^  mctor  exercitus,  a  victorious  army;  homo  gladiator,  a  gladiator,  a  gladi- 
atorial man;  mctrlces  AtJienae,  victorious  {conquering)  Athens;  populm  late  rex,  a 
people  of  extensive  sway.* 

442.  Equivalent  to  a  Clause.— Adjectives,  like  nouns  in  ap- 
position, are  sometimes  equivalent  to  clauses  : 

Nemo  sal  tat  sobrius,  no  one  dances  when  he  vi  soler^  or  when  sober.  Cic. 
Hortensium  vivum  amavl,  /  loved  Ilortensius^  while  he  was  alive,  Cic.  HomO 
nunquam  sobrius,  a  man  who  is  never  sober.   Cic. 

:SoTE.— Prior,  primus,  iimmm,po8tr6mu8,  are  often  best  rendered  by  a  relative  clause; 
Primus  morem  solvit,  he  was  the  Jirst  icho  broke  the  custom.''  Liv. 

443.  Adjectives  and  Adverbs. — Adjectives  are  sometimes 
used  where  our  idiom  employs  adverbs : 

Socrates  venenum  laetus  hausit,  Socrates  cheerfully  dranh  the  poison. 
Sen.  Senatus  frequens  convenit,  the  senate  assembled  in  great  numbers.  Cic. 
Eoscius  erat  ROmae  frequens,  Eoscius  was  frequently  at  Rome.   Cic. 

1  That  is,  words  which  were  originally  adjectives  or  participles  sometimes  become 
substantives;  indeed,  many  substantives  were  originally  adjectives;  see  323,  foot-note; 
334,  foot-note. 

2  Praefectus,  from  praeficio  (lit.,  one  appointed  over);  natus,  from  ndscor  (lit, 
one  born). 

3  See  397, 1.    For  niJiil  riliqul  facere,  see  401,  note  4. 

*  Numerous  adverbial  expressions  are  thus  formed  by  combining  the  neuter  of  adjec- 
tives with  prepositions. 

*  That  is,  these  words  are  generally  substantives,  but  sometimes  adjectives. 
«  See  Yerg.,  Aen.,  I.,  21. 

■^  With  the  adverb  prlmum  the  thought  would  be,  he  first  broke  the  custom  (i.  e., 
before  doing  anything. else).  Compare  the  corresponding  distinction  between  the  Greek 
adjective  irpwros  and  the  adverb  irpSiTov. 


I 


\ 


( 


1 


USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


243 


Note  l.—The  adjectives  chiefly  thus  used  are — (1)  Those  expressive  otjoy^  knowl- 
edge, and  their  opposites :  laetus,  libens,  invltus,  trlstis,  sciens,  Insciens,  priidens,  im- 
prUdens,  etc.    (2)  Hfullus,  solus,  iotus,  anus;  prior,  primus,  propior,  prcximu^,  etc. 
Note  2. — In  the  poets  a  few  adjectives  of  time  and  place  are  used  in  the  same  manner: 
Domesticus  otior,  /  idle  about  home.  Hor.    Vespertlnus  pete  tectum,  at  evening 
seek  your  abode.  Hor. 

Note  8. — In  rare  instances  adverbs  seem  to  supply  the  place  of  adjectives : 
Omnia  recte  sunt,  all  things  are  right.  Cic.    Non  ignarl  sumus  a7ite  malorum,!  we 
are  not  ignorant  of  past  miffortunes.  Verg.    Nunc  hominum  ^  mores,  the  character 
ofinen  of  the  present  day.  Plant. 

Note  4. — Numeral  adverbs  often  occur  with  titles  of  office:  ^ 

Flaminius,  consul  iterum,  Flaminius,  when  consul  for  the  second  time.  Cic. 

444.  A  COMPARISON  between  two  objects  requires  the  com- 
parative degree  ;  between  more  than  two,  the  superlative : 

Prior  horura,  the  former  of  these  (two).  Nep.  Gallorum  fortissimi,  the 
bravest  of  the  Gauls.   Caes. 

1.  The  comparative  sometimes  has  the  force  of  too,  unusually,  some- 
what, and  the  superlative,  the  force  of  very  :  doctior^  too  learned,  or  some- 
what learned ;  doctissimus,  very  learned. 

Note. — Certain  superlatives  are  common  as  titles  of  honor :  cldrlssimus,  nobilissi- 
mus,  and  summus—a&^eci&Wy  applicable  to  men  of  consular  or  senatorial  rank;  fortissi- 
nius,  honestissimus,  illustrissimus,  and  splendidissimus — especially  applicable  to  those 
of  the  equestrian  order. 

2.  Comparative  after  Quam. — When  an  object  is  said  to  possess  one 
quality  in  a  higher  degree  than  another,  the  two  adjectives  thus  used  either 
may  be  connected  by  magis  quam  ^  or  may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative :  * 

Disertus  magis  quam  sapiens,  more  fluent  than  wise.^  Cic.  Praeclanim  magis 
quam  difficile,  more  noble  than  difficult,  or  noble  rather  than  difficult.  Cic.  Ditiores 
quam  fortiorcs,  more  wealthy  than  brave.*  Liv.  Clarior  quam  gratior,  more  illustri- 
ous than  pleasing.  Liv. 

Note  1. — In  a  similar  manner  two  adverbs  may  be  connected  by  inagis  quam,  or 
may  both  be  put  in  the  comparative : 

Magis  audacter  quam  parate,  with  more  audacity  than  preparation.  Cic.  Bellum 
fortius  quam  felicius  gerere,  to  wage  war  with  more  valor  than  success.  Liv. 

Note  2. — The  form  with  magis,  both  in  adjectives  and  in  adverbs,  may  sometimes 
be  best  rendered  rather  than : 

Ars  magis  magna  quam  difficilis,  an  art  extensive  rather  than  difficult,  Cic.  See 
also  the  second  example  under  2,  above. 

Note  3. — In  the  later  Latin  the  positive  sometimes  follows  quam,  even  when  the 
regular  comparative  precedes,  and  sometimes  two  positives  are  used : 

Vehementius  quam  caute  appetere,  to  seek  more  eagerly  than  cautiously.  Tac. 
Claris  quam  vetustis,  illustrimis  rather  than  ancient.  Tac. 

Note  4. — For  the  use  of  comparatives  before  quam  pro,  see  417, 1,  note  5. 

*  Like  the  Greek  tu)v  irpLv  KaKtav  and  tw»'  vvv  avOpunrav. 

^  The  want  of  a  present  participle  in  the  verb  sum  brings  these  adverbs  into  close 
connection  with  nouns. 

3  As  in  English,  more  fluent  than  wise.    This  is  the  usual  method  in  Cicero. 

*  As  in  Greek,  irXdov^q  rf  /ScAn'oi/e?,  more  numerous  than  good.  This  method,  com- 
mon in  Livy,  is  rare  in  the  earlier  writers. 


A 


244 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS, 


AGREEMENT  OF  PRONOUNS, 


245 


.r.- 


%' 


3.  Strengthening  Words.  —  Comparatives  and  superlatives  are  often 
strengthened  by  a  preposition  with  its  case,  as  by  ante,  prae,  praeter,  supra 
(417,  1,  note  3).  Comparatives  are  also  often  strengthened  by  etiam,  even, 
still ;  multo,  much ;  and  superlatives  by  lo?2ge,  multo,  by  far,  much  ;  vel,  even ; 
umis,  ujius  omnium,  alone,  alone  of  all,  without  exception,  far,  by  far;  quam, 
quam  or  quantus  with  the  verb  possum,  as  possible ;  tain  quam  qui,  ut  qui, 
as  possible  (lit.,  as  he  who) : 

Majores  etiam  varietatcs,  even  greater  varieties.  Cic.  Multo  etiam  gravius  queri- 
tur,  he  complains  even  much  more  Utterly,  Caes.  Multo  maxima  pars,  by  far  the 
largest  part.  Cic.  Quam  saepissime,  as  often  as  possible.  Cic.  Unus  omnium  doctis- 
simus,  uithout  exception  the  most  learned  of  men.  Cic.  Res  una  omnium  difficilliraa, 
a  thing  by  far  the  most  difficult  of  all.  Cic.  Quam  maximae  cosine,  forces  as  large 
as  possible.  Sail.  Quantam  maximam  potest  vastitatem  ostendit,  he  exhibits  the  great- 
est possible  desolation  (lit.,  as  great  as  the  greatest  he  can),  Liv. 


CHAPTEE    IV. 
SYNTAX   OF   PRONOUNS. 


RULE  XXXV.— Agreement  of  Pronouns. 

445.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender, 
NuiviBER,  and  person  :  " 

Animal  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood.  Cic.  Ego, 
qui  te  confirmo,  /  who  encourage  you.  Cic.  Vis  est  in  virtutibus,  eas 
excita,  there  is  strength  in  virtues,  arouse  them.   Cic. 

Note. — The  antecedent  is  the  word  or  words  to  which  the  pronoun  refers,  and  whoso 
place  it  supplies.  Thus,  in  the  examples  under  the  rule,  animal  is  the  antecedent  of 
quod;  ego^ofqui;  andvirtOtibus,  of  eds. 

1.  This  rule  applies  to  all  pronouns  when  used  as  nouns.  Pronouns  used 
as  adjectives  conform  to  the  rule  for  adjectives ;  see  438. 

2.  When  the  antecedent  is  a  demonstrative  in  agreement  with  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  relative  agrees  with  the  latter : 

Tu  es  is  qui  me  Ornastl,  you  are  the  one  wno  commended  me.   Cic. 

3.  When  a  relative,  or  other  pronoun,  refers  to  two  or  more  antecedents, 
it  generally  agrees  with  them  conjointly,  but  it  sometimes  agrees  with  the 

nearest : 

Pietas,  virtus,  fides,  qudrum'^  EOmae  templa  Bunt,^2c^y,  virtue,  and  faith, 
WHOSE  temples  are  at  Rome,  Cic.  Peccatum  ac  culpa,  quae,^  error  and  fault, 
which.   Cic. 

1  Qudrmn  agrees  ^vith  pietds,  virtus^  &nd  fides  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the 
plural ;  but  quae  agrees  simply  with  culpa. 


% 


i 


(■;" 


Note  1.— With  antecedents  of  different  genders,  the  pronoun  conforms  in  gender  to 
the  rule  for  adjectives  (439,  2  and  3)  : 

Pueri  mulieresque  qui.}  boys  and  tcomen  who.  Caes.  Inconstantia  et  temeritiis, 
quae  ^  digna  non  sunt  deo,  inconstancy  and  rashness  which  are  not  worthy  of  a 
god.  Cic. 

Note  2.-— With  antecedents  of  different  persons.,  the  pronoun  prefers  the  first  person 
to  the  second,  and  the  second  to  the  third,  conforming  to  the  rule  for  verbs  (463, 1) : 

Ego  ac  tu  inter  nos  ^  loquimur,  you  and  I  converse  together,  Tac.  Et  tu  et  collCgae 
tui,  qui  2  sperastis,  both  you  and  your  colleagues,  who  hoped.  Cic. 

4.  By  Attraction,  a  pronoun  sometimes  agrees  with  a  Predicate  Noun 
or  an  Appositive  instead  of  the  antecedent : 

Animal  quern  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call 
man,^  Cic.  Thebae,  quod  {quae)  caput  est,  Thebes,  which  is  the  capital.  Liv. 
Ea  {id)  erat  confessio,  that  (i.  c,  the  action  referred  to)  was  a  confession. 
Liv.     Flumen  Rhtnus,  q^ii,  the  river  Rhine,  which.   Caes. 

5.  By  Synesis,  the  pronoun  is  sometimes  construed  according  to  the  real 
meaning  of  the  antecedent,  without  regard  to  grammatical  form ;  and  some- 
times it  refers  to  the  class  of  objects  to  which  the  antecedent  belongs : 

Quia  fessum  mllitcm  habebat,  his  quiOtcm  dedit,  as  he  had  an  exhausted 
soldiery,  he  gave  them  (these)  a  rest,  Liv.  Equitatus,  qui  viderunt,  the  cav- 
alry WHO  saw,  Caes.  De  alia  rO,  quod  ad  mO  attinet,  in  regard  to  another 
thing  which  pertains  to  me.  Plant.  Earum  rerum  utrumque,  each  of  these 
things,  Cic.  Democritum  omittamus ;  apud  istos  ;  let  us  omit  Democritus  / 
with  SUCH  (i.  c,  as  he).   Cic. 

6.  Antecedent  Omitted. — The  antecedent  of  the  relative  is  often  omitted 
when  it  is  indefinite,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun,  or  is  implied  in  a  posses- 
sive pronoun,  or  in  an  adjective : 

Sunt  qui  censeant,  there  are  some  who  thinJc,  Cic.  Terra  reddit  quod  ac- 
cGpit,  the  earth  returns  what  it  has  received,  Cic.  Vestra,  qui  cum  integri- 
tate  vixistis,  hoc  interest,  this  interests  you  ivho  have  lived  with  integrity,  Cic. 
Servilis  tumultus  quos,  the  revolt  of  the  slaves  wlwm,   Caes. 

7.  Clause  as  Antecedent. — When  the  antecedent  is  a  sentence  or  clause, 
the  pronoun,  unless  attracted  (445,  4),  is  in  the  Neuter  Singular,  but  the 
relative  generally  adds  id  as  an  appositive  to  such  antecedent : 

Nos,  id  quod  debet,  patria  delectat,  our  country  delights  us,  as  it  ought 
(lit.,  that  which  it  oives),  Cic.  Regem,  quod  nunquam  antea  acciderat,  neca- 
verunt,  tliey  put  their  Hng  to  death,  ichich  had  never  before  happened.   Cic. 

8.  Relative  Attracted. — The  relative  is  sometimes  attracted  into  the 
case  of  the  antecedent,  and  sometimes  agrees  with  the  antecedent  repeated : 

Judice  quo  (for  quern)  nosti,  the  judge  whom,  you  knoio.   Hor.    Dies  instat, 

1  Qui  agrees  with  puerl  and  muUeres  conjointly,  and  is  in  the  masculine^  according 
to  439,  2;  but  quae  is  in  the  neuter.,  according  to  439,  3. 

2  Nos,  referring  to  ego  dc  tH^  is  in  the  frst  person ;  while  qui^  referring  to  tu  et  col- 
legae,  is  in  the  second  person,  as  is  shown  by  the  verb  sperastis. 

3  In  these  examples,  the  pronouns  quern,  quod^  and  ea  are  attracted,  to  agree  with 
their  predicate  nouns,  hominem.,  caput,  and  confessio;  but  qui  agrees  with  the  apposi- 
tive, RJienus. 


\ 


246 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS, 


247 


quo  dig,  the  day  is  at  hand,  on  which  day.  Caes.  Cumae,  quam  urbem  teng- 
bant,  Cumae^  which  city  they  held.   Liv. 

9.  Antecedent  Attracted.-Ih  poetry,  rarely  in  prose,  the  antecedent  is 
sometimes  attracted  into  the  case  of  the  relative  ;  and  sometimes  incorporated 
in  the  relative  clause  with  the  relative  in  agreement  with  it  : 

Urbem,  quam  statuo,  vestra  est,  the  city  which  I  am  building  is  yours. 
Verg.i  Malarum,  quus  amor  ciiras  habet,  oblivisci  (for  maldrum  curdrum 
quas),  to  forget  the  wretched  cares  which  love  ha^.  Hor.i  Quos  vos  implorare 
debetis,  ut,  quam  urbem  pulcherrimam  esse  volucrunt,  banc  2  defendant,  tJiese 
(lit.,  ^vhom)  you  ought  to  implore  to  defend  this  city,  which  they  wished  to  he 
most  beautiful.   Cic. 

Use  of  Pronouns. 

446.  Personal  Pronouns.— The  Nominative  of  Personal  Pro- 
nouns is  used  only  for  emphasis  or  contrast  :  ^ 

Significamus  quid  sentiamus,  %ue  show  what  we  think.   Cic     Ego  reges 
ejecl,  tos  tyrannos  introducitis,  I  have  banished  lings,  you  introduce  tyrants 
Cic.  ^ 

Note  1.— With  quid  em  the  pronoun  is  usually  expressed,  but  not  with  equidem  • 

Facis  amice  tu  quidem,  you  act  indeed  in  a  friendly  manner.  Cic.  Non  dubita- 
bam  equidem,  I  did  not  doubt  indeed.  Cic. 

Note  2.-A  writer  sometimes  speaks  of  himself  in  the  plural,  using  noa  for  ego,  nos- 
ter  for  mens,  and  the  plural  verb  for  the  singular ; 

Vides  nc)s  (for  me)  multa  cOnari,  you  see  that  we  (for  I)  are  attempting  many 
things  Cic.  Bermo  explicabit  nostram  (for  meant)  sententiam,  the  conversation  will 
unfold  OFR  (MY)  opinion.  Cic.    Diximus  (for  di^  multa,  I  have  said  many  things. 

m-TE  S.-JVostrl  and  vestri  are  generally  used  in  an  objective  sense;  nostrUm  and 
vestrum  m  a  partitive  sense  ; 

Habetis  ducem  memorem  vestri,  you  ham  a  leader  mindful  of  toue  interests  (of 
TOTT).  Cic  Minus  habeo  vlrium  quam  vestrum  utervls,  I  have  less  strength  than  either 
OF  YOF.  Cic.    Quis  nostrum^  who  or  us  ?  Cic. 

Note  4.-With  ab,  ad,  or  apud,  a  personal  pronoun  may  designate  the  residence  or 
abode  of  a  person : 

A  nobis  egreditur,  he  is  coming  from  our  house.  Ter.  VenI  ad  me,  I  came  to  my 
HOUSE.  Cic.  Eamus  ad  mo,  let  us  go  to  my  Iwuse.  Ter.  Apud  te  est,  he  is  at  your 
W^  Cic  Ruri  apud  so  est,  he  is  at  his  residence  in  the  country.  Cic.  See  also 
433, 1.,  ad,  apud,  etc. 

447.  Possessive  Pronouns,  when  not  emphatic,  are  seldom 
expressed,  if  they  can  be  supplied  from  the  context : 

Mantis  lava,  wash  your  hands.  Cic.  Mih!  mea  vita  cara  est,  my  life  is 
dear  to  me.^  Plaut.  i     if     j 


J  For  other  examples,  see  Yerg.,  Aen.,  V.,  2S-50;  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  10, 16. 
^  Quam  urbem,  hanc  =  hanc  urbem,  quam. 

3  The  learner  will  remember  that  a  pronominal  subject  is  actually  contained  in  the 
ending  of  the  verb;  see  368,  2,  foot-note. 

*  For  other  examples,  see  Hor.,  Sat.,  I.,  9,  7,  and  Car.,  I.,  32. 

*  In  this  example  mea  is  expressed  for  emphasis. 


I 


i 


Note  1. — Possessive  Pronouns  sometimes  mean  favorable,  propitious,  as  alUnus 
often  means  unfavorable : 

Vadimus  baud  numine  nostro,  we  advance  under  a  divinity  not  propitious.  Verg. 
Tempore  tuo  pugnasti,  you  fought  at  a  favorable  time.  Liv.  Ferunt  sua  flamina  clas- 
sem,  favorable  winds  bear  the  fleet.  Verg.  Alieno  loco  proelium  committunt,  they  en- 
gage in  battle  in  an  unfavorable  place.  Caes. 

Note  2.— For  the  Possessive  Pronoun  in  combination  with  a  Genitive,  see  398,  3. 

448.  Reflexive  Use  of  Pronouns. — Sul  and  suus  have  a  re- 
flexive sense  ;  ^  sometimes  also  the  other  personal  and  possessive 
pronouns :  r^^ 

Miles  se  ipsum  interfecit,  the  soldier  hilled  himself.  Tac.  TelO  se  de- 
fendit,  he  defends  himself  with  a  weapon.  Cic.  Sua  vl  movetur,  he  is  moved 
by  his  own  power.  Cic.  Me  consolor,  I  console  myself.  Cic.  Vos  vestra  tecta 
defendite,  defend  your  houses.   Cic. 

Note. — Inter  nos,  inter  vos,  inter  se^  have  a  reciprocal  force,  each  other,  one  an- 
otJier,  together;  but  instead  oi inter  se,  the  noun  may  be  repeated  in  an  oblique  case : 

Colloquimur  inter  nos,  we  converse  together.  Cic.  Amant  inter  se,  tliey  love  one 
another.  Cic.  Homines  hominibus  utiles  sunt,  me^i  are  useful  to  men  (i.  e.,  to  each 
other).  Cic. 

449.  Sui  and  suus  generally  refer  to  the  Subject  of  the  clause 

in  which  they  stand  : 

So  diligit,  he  loves  himself.  Cic.  Justitia  propter  sese  colenda  est, Justice 
should  be  cultivated  for  its  own  sake.  Cic.  Annulum  suum  dcdit,  he  gave  his 
ring.  Nep.  Per  se  sib!  quisque  cams  est,  every  one  is  in  his  vei'y  nature 
(through  or  in  himself)  dear  to  himself   Cic. 

1.  In  Subordinate  Clauses  expressing  the  sentiment  of  the  principal 

subject,  sui  and  suv>s  generally  refer  to  that  subject : 

Sentit  animus  se  vi  sua  mover!,  the  mind  perceives  tfiat  it  is  moved  by  its  own 
power.  Cic.  A  mo  petTvit  ut  secum  essem,  he  asked  (from)  me  to  be  with  him  (that  I 
would  be).  Cic.  Pervestigat  quid  sui  elves  cogitent,  he  tries  to  ascertain  wMt  his 
fellow-citize/ns  think.  Cic. 

1)  As  sul  and  suus  thus  refer  to  subjects,  the  demonstratives,  is,  ille,  etc.,  generally 
refer  either  to  other  words,  or  to  subjects  which  do  not  admit  sul  and  suus  : 

Deum  agnoscis  ex  ejus  operibus,  yoic  recognise  a  god  by  (from)  Ids  works.  Cic. 
Obligat  civitatem  nihil  eOs  mutaturos,  he  binds  the  state  not  to  change  anything  (that 
they  will).  Just. 

2)  In  some  subordinate  clauses  the  writer  may  at  pleasure  use  either  the  reflexive  or 
the  demonstrative,  according  as  he  wishes  to  present  the  thought  as  that  of  the  principal 
subject,  or  as  his  own : 

Persuadent  Tulingis  uti  cum  iis  ^  proficiscantur,  tJtey  persuade  the  Tulingi  to  de- 
part with  them.  Caes. 

3)  Sometimes  reflexives  and  demonstratives  are  used  without  any  apparent  distinction : 


1  &ul,  of  himself;  sibi,  for  himself;  se,  himself. 

a  Here  cum  its  is  the  proper  language  for  the  writer  without  reference  to  the  senti- 
ment of  the  principal  subject;  secum,  which  would  be  equally  proper,  would  present  the 
thought  as  the  sentiment  of  that  suljject. 


*     Ml 


248 


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USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


249 


I 


Caesar  Fabium  cum  legiune  sua  i  remittit,  Caesar  sends  hack  FaUus  and  (with) 
hts  legion,  Caes.  OmittO  Isocratem  discipulosque  ejus,i  J  omit  Isocrates  and  hisdia- 
ciples.  Cic. 

2.  Suus,  in  the  sense  of  His  own,  Fitting,  etc.,  may  refer  to  subject  or 
object : 

Justitia  suum  cuique  Xnhmi,  justice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic. 

3.  Synesis.— When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  not  the  real  agent  of  the 
action,  sul  and  suus  refer  to  the  agent : 

A  Caesare  invitor  sibl  ut  sim  legatus,  lam  invited  hy  Caesar  (real  agent)  to  be  his 
lieutenant.  Cic. 

4.  The  Plural  of  Suus,  meaning  His  Friends,  Their  Friends,  Their 
Possessions,  etc.,  is  used  with  great  freedom,  often  referring  to  oblique 
cases : 

Fuit  hoc  luctuosum  suTs,  this  was  afflicting  to  his  friends.'^  Cic. 

5.  Sui  and  Suus  sometimes  refer  to  an  omitted  subject : 
Deforme  est  do  so  praedicare,  to  boast  of  one's  self  is  disgusting.  Cic. 

6.  Two  Reflexives.— Sometimes  a  clause  has  one  reflexive  referring  to 
the  principal  subject,  and  another  referring  to  the  subordinate  subject : 

Eespondit  neminem  sccum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendlsse,  he  replied  that  no  one  had 
contended  icith  him  without  (his)  destruction.^  Caes. 

450.  Demonstrative  Pkonouns.— iZI<;,  iste,  ille,  are  often 
called  respectively  demonstratives  of  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Persons,  as  Mc  designates  that  which  is  near  the  speaker  ;  iste,  that 
which  is  near  the  person  addressed ;  and  ille,  that  which  is  remote 
from  both : 

Gustos  hujusurbis,^7^cp'?«Grrdr^a/^o/^;H5c%  (i.e.,  of  our  city).   Cic.    Muta 
istam  mentem,  change  that  purpose  of  yours.   Cic.     Ista  quae  sunt  a  te  dicta 
those  things  which  were  spoken  by  you.   Cic.     Si  illos,  quos  videre  non  pos- 
sumus,  neglegis,  if  you  disregard  those  (far  away,  yonder)  whom  we  can  not 
see.    Cic. 

1.  Hie  designates  an  object  conceived  as  near,  and  ille  as  remote,  whether 
in  space.,  time.,  or  thought : 

Non  antiquo  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  fuit  erudltus,  he  was  educated,  not  in  that 
ancient,  but  in  this  our  modern  way.  Cic.    H5c  illud  fuit,  was  it  (that)  thisf  Verg. 

Note.— The  idea  of  contempt  often  implied  in  clauses  with  iste  is  not  strictly  con- 
tained in  the  pronoun  itself,  but  derived  from  the  context :  * 

AnimI  est  ista  mollities,  non  virtus,  that  is  an  effeminate  spirit,  not  valor.  Caes. 

1  Observe  that  the  reflexive  is  used  in  the  first  example,  and  ihQTd^^onstr^tVin 
the  second,  though  the  cases  are  entirely  alike. 

2  Here  suls  refers  to  an  oblique  case  in  the  preceding  sentence. 

3  Here  se  refers  to  the  subject  of  respondit,  and  sua  to  neminem,  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause. 

^  The  idea  of  contempt  is  readily  explained  by  the  fact  that  iste  is  often  applied  io 
the  news  of  an  opponent,  to  a  defendant  before  a  court  of  justice,  and  the  like. 


2.  Former  and  Latter,— In  reference  to  two  objects  previously  mentioned, 
(1)  7dc  generally  follows  ille  and  refers  to  the  latter  object,  while  ille  refers 
to  i\iQ  former  ;  but  (2)  Mc  may  precede  and  may  refer  to  the  former.,  and  ille 
refer  to  the  latter  : 

InimicT,  amici;  illl,  hi,  enemies,  friends ;  the  former,  the  latter.  Cic.  Certa  pax, 
spcrata  victoria;  haec  (pax)  in  tua,  ilia  in  deorum  potestate  est,  sure  peace,  hoped-for 
victory;  the  former  is  in  your  power,  the  latter  in  the  power  of  the  gods.  Liv. 

Note.— ^ic  refers  to  ihQ  former  object,  when  that  object  is  conceived  of  as  nearer 
in  thought,  either  because  of  its  importance,  or  because  of  its  close  connection  with  the 
subject  under  discussion.^ 

3.  Hie  and  ille  are  often  used  of  what  immediately  follows  in  discourse : 

His  verbis  epistulam  misit,  he  sent  a  letter  in  these  words  (i.  e.,  in  the  following 
words).  Nep.  Illud  intellego,  omnium  ora  in  mc  conversa  esse,  this  I  understand,  that 
the  eyes  of  all  are  turned  upon  me.  Sail. 

4.  Ille  is  often  used  of  what  is  well  known,  famous  : 

Medea  ilia,  that  well-knoicn  Medea.  Cic.  Ego,  ille  ferox,  tacul,  7,  that  haughty  one, 
was  silent.  Ovid. 

Note  l.—IJlc  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  7neus  or  nosier,  rarely  to  ego,  and  hlc 

homo  to  ego : 

Supra  banc  memoriara,  before  our  time  (lit.,  before  this  memory).  Cic.  His  mels 
litteris,  with  this  letter  of  onine  (from  mc).  Cic.  Hie  homost  omnium  hominum,  etc., 
of  all  men  lam,  etc.  (lit.,  this  man  is).  Plaut. 

Note  2.—IIlc,  ille,  and  is  are  sometimes  redundant,  especially  with  quidem  : 

Sclpio  non  multum  ille  dicebat,  Scipio  did  not  indeed  say  much.  Cic.  Grace!  vo- 
lunt  ill!  quidem,  the  Greeks  indeed  desire  it.  Cic.  Ista  tranquiliitas  ea  ipsa  est  bcata 
vita,  that  tranquillity  is  itself  a  happy  life."^  Cic. 

Note  3.— A  demonstrative  or  relative  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  Genitive,  or  to  a 
preposition  with  its  case  :  hlc  amor  =  amor  hHjus  rFi,  'the  love  of  this';  haec  ciira  = 
cura  de  hoc,  ^care  concerning  this.' 

Note  4.— Adverbs  derived  from  demonstrative  pronouns  share  the  distinctive  mean- 
ings of  the  pronouns  themselves : 

Hie  plus  mall  est,  quam  illTc  bonl,  there  is  more  of  evil  here,  than  of  good  there.  Ter. 

See  also  304;  305. 

451.  Is  and  Idem  refer  to  preceding  nouns,  or  are  the  antece- 
dents of  relatives : 

Dionysius  aufuglt,  is  est  in  provincia,  Dionysius  has  fled,  lie  is  in  the 
province.  Cic.  Is  qui  satis  habet,  he  who  has  enough.  Cic.  Eadem  audlrc 
malunt,  they  prefer  to  hear  the  same  things.   Liv. 

1.  The  pronoun  is,  the  weakest  of  the  demonstratives,  is  often  understood,  especially 
before  a  relative  or  a  Genitive : 

Flebat  pater  de  fllii  morte,  de  patris  filius,  the  father  wept  over  the  death  of  the  son, 
the  son  over  (that)  of  the  father.  Cic.    See  also  445,  6. 


1  Thus,  in  the  last  example,  haec  refers  to  certa  pax  as  the  more  prominent  object 
in  the  mind  of  the  speaker,  as  he  is  setting  forth  the  advantages  of  a  sure  peace  over  a 
hoped-for  victory. 

2  For  other  examples,  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  I.,  3 ;  III.,  490;  and  XI.,  809.    For  the  use  of 

personal  pronouns  with  qxiidem,  see  446,  note  1. 


I 

f 


/ 


H 


250 


usjE  of  FRONOUNS, 


2.  /«,  icith  a  conjunction^  is  often  used  for  emphasis,  like  the  English,  and  that  too, 
and  that  indeed : 

Unam  rem  explicabO,  eamque  maximam,  one  thing  I  will  explain^  and  that  too  a 
most  important  one.  Cic.  Audire  Cratippum,  idquo  Athenis,  to  hear  Cratippue^  and 
that  too  at  Athens.^  Cic. 

8.  Idem  is  sometimes  best  rendered  also^  at  the  same  time^  at  once,  both,  yet: 

Nihil  iitile,  quod  non  idem  honestum,  nothing  useful,  whicJi  is  not  also  honorable. 
Cic.  Cum  dicat,  negat  Idem,  though  he  asserts,  he  yet  denies  (the  same  denies).  Cic. 
Kex  Anius,  rex  idem  hominum  Phoeblque  sacerdos,  Ki7ig  Anius,  both  king  of  men  and 
priest  of  Apollo.  Verg. 

4.  Js — qui  means  he — who,  such — as,  such — that: 

li  Bumus,  qui  esse  debemus,  we  are  such  as  ue  ought  to  be.  Cic.  Ea  est  gens  quae 
nesciat,  t/ie  race  is  stcch  that  it  knows  not.  Liv. 

5.  Idem — qui  means  the  same— who,  the  same— as;  Idem — dc  {atque^  et,  que),  Idem 
— ut.  Idem — cum  with  the  Ablative,  the  same— as: 

Eidem  mores,  qui,  the  same  manners  which  or  as.  Cic.  Est  idem  uc  fuit,  he  is  the 
same  as  he  was.  Ter.  Eodem  mecum  patre  genitus,  the  son  of  the  same  father  as  I 
(with  me).  Tac. 

6.  For  the  distinction  between  is  and  sui  in  subordinate  clauses,  see  449, 1,  2). 

452.  Tpse  adds  emphasis,  generally  rendered  self: 

Ipse  Pater  fulmina  molltur,  the  Father  himself  (Jupiter)  hurls  the  thunder- 
bolts. Verg.  Ipse  2  dixit,  he  himself  said  it.  Cic.  Ipse  Caesar,  Caesar  him- 
self. Cic.     Fac  ut  te  ipsum  custodias,  see  that  you  guard  yourself.    Cic. 

1.  Ipse  belongs  to  the  emphatic  word,  whether  subject  or  object,  but  with  a  prefer- 
ence for  the  subject : 

Me  ipse  consolor,  /  myself  (not  another)  console  myself.  Cic.  Ipse  se  quisque  dili- 
git,  e/cery  one  (himself)  lote^  himself  Cic.    Se  ipsum  interfecit,  he  killed  himself.  Tac. 

Note. — Ipse  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  secum,  *  with  himself,' '  alone,'  or  by  per 
se,  *  by  himself,'  *  unaided,' '  in  and  of  himself,'  etc. : 

Aliud  genitor  secum  ipse  voliitat,  the  father  (Jupiter)  himself  alone  ponders  an- 
other plan.  Yerg.  Quod  est  rectum  ipsumque  per  se  laudtibile,  which  is  right,  and  in 
and  of  itself  praiseworthy .  Cic. 

2.  Ipse  is  often  best  rendered  by  ijery : 
Ipse  ille  Gorgias,  that  very  Gorgias.  Cic. 

3.  With  numerals,  ipse  means  just  so  many,  just;  so  also  in  nunc  ipsum,  'just  at 
this  time';  turn  ipsum,  'just  at  that  time': 

Triginta  dies  ipsi,  just  thirty  days.  Cic.  Nunc  ipsum  sine  tc  esse  non  possum,  just 
at  this  time  I  cannot  be  without  you.  Cic. 

4.  Ipse  in  the  Genitive  with  possessives  has  the  force  otoicn,  one's  o\on: 
Nostra  ipsorum  amicitia,  our  oum  friendship.  Cic.    See  398,  3. 

5.  Ipse  in  a  subordinate  clause  sometimes  refers  to  the  principal  subject,  like  an  em- 
phatic 8ul  or  suus : 

Legatos  misit  qui  ipsi  vitam  peterent,  he  sent  messengers  to  ask  Iff e  for  himself .  Sail. 

6.  Ft  ipse  and  ipse  quoque  may  often  be  rendered  also,  likewise,  even  he:^ 

Alius  Achilles  natus  et  ipse  dea,  another  Achilles  likeioise  (lit.,  himself  also)  bom 
of  a  goddess.  Verg. 


1  Id,  thus  used,  often  refers  to  a  clause,  or  to  the  general  thought,  as  in  this  example. 

2  Applied  to  Pythagoras  by  his  disciples.    Ipse  is  often  thus  used  of  a  superior,  as 
of  a  master,  teacher,  etc. 

'  Compare  the  Greek  koI  avro^. 


i 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


251 


For  the  use  of  the  Nominative  ipse  in  connection  with  the  Ablative  Absolute,  see 
431,  note  3. 

J  453.  Relative  Pronouns.— The  relative  is  often  used  where 
the  English  idiom  requires  a  demonstrative  or  xpersona^pronoun  ;^ 
feometimes  even  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  : 
\\  K6S  loquitur  ipsa,  quae  semper  valet,  the  fact  itself  speaks,  and  this 
(thich)  ever  has  weiglit.   Cic.    Qui  proelium  committunt,  they  engage  m  bat- 
tle   Caes.    (^\x2iQ^QMm\iii^mt,  since  tJiesetUngs  are  so.  Cic. 

I  1  Relatives  and  Demonstratives  are  often  correlatives  to  each  other: 
Tko^qul,  iste-qul,  etc.  These  combinations  generally  retain  the  ordmary 
fdrce  of  the  separate  words,  hut  see  is— qui,  Idem^qui,  451,  4  and  5. 
I  NoTE.-The  neuter  quidquid,^  accompanied  by  an  adjective,  a  participle,  or  a  Geni- 
tive, may  be  used  of  persons :  '  ^,  ^  7  „*^..^,^ 
?\Matres  et  quidquid  tecum  invalidum  est  delige,  select  the  mothers  and  whatever 
fXble  persons  there  are  with  you  (lit.,  whatever  there  is  with  you  feebly).  Yerg. 
Quidquid  erat  patrum,  whatever  fathers  there  were.  Liv.    See  also  397,  3,  note  5. 

2  In  Two  Successive  Clauses,  the  relative  may  he-(l)  expressed  in 
both,  (2)  expressed  in  the  first  and  omitted  in  the  second,  (3)  expressed  m 
the  first  and  followed  by  a  demonstrative  in  the  second : 

Nos  qui  sermon!  non  interfuissGmus  et  quibus  Cotta  sententias  tradidisset^e  who 
had  not  been  p^'escnt  at  the  conversation,  and  to  whom  Cotta  had  -^P^J^^^^^^^^ 
ions.  Cic.    Dumnorix  qui  prlncipatum  obtinebat  ac  plebi  acceptus  erat,  D^^^orix,who 
held  the  cJiief  authority,  and  who  was  acceptable  to  the  common  people.  C^e^,    Quae 
nee  haberemus  nee  his  uteremur,  ichich  we  should  neither  have  nor  use.  Cic. 

Note  1.— Several  relatives  may  appear  in  successive  clauses :  ^         .     .   . 

Omnes  qui  vestltum,  qui  tecta,  qui  cultum  vitae,  qui  praesidia  contra  fcras  mvc^c- 
runt,  all  xoho  introduced  (invented)  clothing,  houses,  the  refinements  of  hfe,  protec- 

Hon  against  wild  beasts.  Cic.  v  *    *•  «  .  .•«  ^«7  /,-,/ 

.    Note  2.-A  relative  clause  with  is  is  often  equivalent  to  a  substantive  :  u  qui  au- 

kiunt  =  audltores,  '  hearers.'' 

3.  Two  Relatives  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause : 
Artes  quas  qui  tenent,  arts,  whose  possessors  (which  who  possess).  Cic. 
'  i.  A  Relative  Clause  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  the  Ablative  ^lih pro: 
Wer5,  quae  tua  prudentia  est,  te  valere,  /^ope  you  are  well,  such  is  your  prudence 

^^To^:SfL  prudentia  est  =  quaes  prudential  pro  tua  prudentia  means  «.c7. 
is  your  prudence,  or  you  are  of  such  prudence,  or  in  accordance  wtth  your  pru- 
dence,  etc. 

6  Relative  with  ADJECTiTE.-Adjectives  belonging  in  sense  to  the  ante- 
cedent, especially  comparatives,  superlatives,  and  numerals,  sometmies  stand 
in  the  relative  clause  in  agreement  with  the  relative : 

Vasa,  quae  pulcherrima  viderat,  the  «lost  heanti/ul vessels  ^Mch  ^' J^'^J^l'^-A^x 
sels,  which  the  most  beautimi  he  had  seen),  «c    D5  servis  sms  quem  habmt  fidU.ss.- 
mnm,  mlsit,  U  tent  the  most  faithful  of  the  slates  Viat  he  had.  «ep. 

"The  neuur.  quod,  used  as  an  adverbial  Accusative,  often  stands  at  the  heg-nnrng 

^\  1  Of  the  general  or  indefinite  relative  ffwe^iti*. 


7 


A^ 


252 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 


USE  OF  PRONOUNS 


253 


,1 


of  8  senteDce  or  clause,  especially  before  .1,  nj,  niH,  em,  and  sometimes  before  mda 
quomarn  uUnam,  etc.,  to  indicate  a  close  connection  with  what  precedes  In  trlnsl 
lating  .t  .s  sometimes  best  omitted,  and  sometimes  best  rendered  by  noJX  /acS, 

«.„„^v  / /'  Tf '"".^'  *.".'  '^  "^"  """'^^ •^''«•'  ^^-    Q"»''  «'  -'SO  resclvissem  id  prius 
now  t/ 1  had /earned  this  eoonerj  Ter.  "  prms, 

nr/nft^f  '''f  ""••««'  ""<»"<"'•.  or  the  corresponding  active,  <7««»  dlcmt,  guem  vacant 
are  often  nsed  m  the  sense  of  eo-ealUd,  the  eo-catted,  u-hat  they  or  you  call,  etc.!' 

HflTZcTct    T-  '"^  """■'  '''•  '"'"'■  '"•'""'''  "^"  ^"'•'  ^''"'•'  '^*'^  "  "-'''^ 
law.  Cic.  '''"""  ™"''  "'"  '''  '"^  *"'  '<'''•  «*  '^»"  'X'"  »■'.  "  ^ot  a 

454.  Interrogative  Pronouns. -The   Interrogative    qxds   is 
used  substantively  ;  qui,  adjectively : 

Quis  ego  sum  «,A«  am  I?  Cic.     Quid  facict,  what  will  he  do?  Cic     Qui 
vir  luit,  \ohal  kind  of  a  man  teas  he  f  Cic. 

1.  Occasionally  qui»  is  used  adjectively  and  qui  substantively  • 

^AoT«'"«'rcic'!'" '""' """  *"'" ""'  '""■"  '"''••'  ^'"  '^"'  ^'''  •=""'''1-^.  -"-•'^- 

NoTE.-The  «««<er,  stdW,  is  sometimes  used  of  persons;  see  397  3  note  5 

2.  Quid,  why,  how  is  it  that,  etc.,  is  often  used  adverbially  (378,  2),  or  stands  an 
•parently  unconnected-  quid,  'why?'  <y>^.iV  quid  enim,  '  wh^he; /' '  w^at  thenT 
;what  .ndeedr   quid  ita,  Mvhy  sor   quid  quod,  'what  ;f  the'fact  that^   ^  .', 

8.  Two  iNTEBROGATivEs  sometimes  occur  in  the  same  clause  • 

fral^ldZZJ^rct'  "'"  ''^'"""'''  """  "'"""  '"^  '^'"'^'-^^  <■"•'  -^"  ^- 
4.  Tantus  sometimes  accompanies  the  interrogative  pronoun  • 

in  aZZl  ret"  '°  '"'  '"""''  '"'^  "'"'^"«^  «■''^  "'^'•''  --  -  <"•-'  --'-"^ 

455.  Indefinite  Pronouns.  »-^%„i,,  y«/,,  qra,  «Rd  i?e«-«p»am, 
are  all  indefinite— stJwe  one,  any  me: 

Est  aliquis,  there  is  some  one.  Liv.  Sensus  aliquis  esse  potest  there  man 
become  sensation.  ^.,.  BHit  ,u^s,  some  one  said!"  Cic.  S^^'r^;^ 
ktng.    Cic.     Aha  res  quaepiam,  any  other  thing.   Cic. 

1.  <?»«and  qui  are  used  chiefly  after,?,  nisi,  ne,  and  ««,«.    Aliquis  and  o«i«are 

SI  est  aliqui  sensus  in  morte,  i/ there  is  any  sensation  whatever  in  death  Cic 
i.  Meteio  qms  and  n^eio  qui  often  supply  the  place  of  indefinite  pronouns : 

Ind  VlTsS.  «0»"^'»«».  etc.    For  other  examples,  see  Caesar,  B.  G.,  I„  14, 

or  of  ^r""'  "^*"""''  """^  ''  """""^  '^^"""''^  "^  '""^  '"'P'^'  "'  ^»"*  f»™  of  <''<«' 
»  For  a  ftill  illustration  of  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Draeger,  I.,  pp.  ST-103. 


Nescio  quis  loquitur,  same  one  speaks  (lit.,  /  know  not  tvJio  speaks^  or  one  speaks, 
I  knoto  not  who).  Plaut.  Nescid  quid  mihi  animus  praesagit  mall,  my  mind  forebodes 
some  evil  (191,  note).  Ter. 

456.  Quldam,  'a  certain  one,'  is  less  indefinite  than  aliquis: 
Quidam  rhetor  antlquus,  a  certain  ancient  rhetorician.   Cic.    Accurrit  qui- 

dam,  a  certain  one  runs  up.   Hor. 

1.  Quidam  with  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used  to  qualify  or  soften  the  statement: 
Justitia  mirifica  quaedam  videtur,  jt^s^ice  seems  sometchat  iconderful.  Cic. 

2.  Quidam  with  quasi^  and  sometimes  without  it,  has  the  force  of  a  certain,  a  kind 
of  as  it  were : 

Quasi  alumna  quaedam,  a  certain  foster-child,  as  it  were.  Cic. 

457.  Quisquam  and  ullus  are  used  chiefly  in  negative  and  con- 
ditional sentences,  and  in  interrogative  sentences  implying  a  nega- 
tive : 

Nequo  mc  quisquam  agnovit,  nor  did  any  one  recognize  me.  Cic.  Si  quis- 
quam, if  any  one.  Cic.  Num  censes  ullum  animal  esse,  do  you  think  there  is 
any  animal  ?  Cic. 

1.  Ntmh  is  the  negative  of  quisquam,  and  like  quisquam  is  generally  used  substan- 
tively, rarely  adjectively : 

Neminem  laesit,  he  harmed  no  one.  Cic.    Nemo  poGta,  no  poet.  Cic. 

2.  Nullus  is  the  negative  oiullus^  and  is  generally  used  adjectively,  but  it  sometimes 
supplies  the  Genitive  and  Ablative  of  nemO,  which  generally  wants  those  cases : 

Nullum  animal,  no  animal.  Cic.    Niillius  aures,  tJie  ears  of  no  one.  Cic. 

8.  Kullus  and  nihil  are  sometimes  used  for  an  emphatic  non : 

N ullus  vcnit,  lie  did  not  come.  Cic.    Mortui  nulli  sunt,  the  dead  are  not.  Cic. 

458.  Qulvls,  qitlUhet,   *any  one  whatever,' and  quisque,  *  every 

one,'  '  each  one,'  are  general  indefinites  (190): 

Quaelibet  res,  anything.  Cic.  Tuorura  quisque  necessariorum,  each  one 
of  your  friends.    Cic. 

1.  Quisque  with  superlatives  and  ordinals  is  generally  best  rendered  by  all,  or  by 
e/ver,  ahcays  ;  with  primus  by  'oery,  possible : 

Epicureos  doctissimus  quisque  contemnit,  all  the  most  learned  despise  the  Epicu- 
reans, or  the  most  learned  ever  despise,  etc.  Cic.  Primo  quoque  die,  the  earliest  day 
possible,  the  tery  first.  Cic. 

2.  Ut  quisque— ita  with  the  superlative  in  both  clauses  is  often  best  rendered,  Hie 
more — the  more : 

Ut  quisque  sib!  plurimura  confldit,  ita  maxime  excellit,  the  more  one  confides  in 
on^s  self,  the  more  one  excels.  Cic. 

459.  Alim  means  ^another,  other' ;  alUr,  'the  one,'  'the  other' 
(of  two),  '  the  second,'  '  a  second.'  They  are  often  repeated  :  aliiin 
— alixis^  one— another  ;  alil'-ali%  some— others  ;  alter— alter.,  the 
one — the  other  ;  alteri — alterl.,  the  one  party — the  other  : 

Legates  alium  ab  alio  aggreditur,  he  tampers  with  the  ambassadors  one  after 
another.  Sail.  Alii  gloriac  serviunt,  alii  pecuniae,  some  are  slaves  to  glory, 
others  to  money.   Cic.     Quidquid  negat  alter,  et  alter,  tvhatever  one  denies,  the 


i4P 


fi 


254 


AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS. 


AGREEMENT  OF   VERBS. 


255 


i 


I 


other  demes  Hor.  Alter  erit  Tiphys,  there  will  he  a  second  Tiphys.  Verg 
lu  nunc  cm  alter  ab  illo,  you  mil  now  be  next  after  Mm.  yJ.  Altert 
dimicant,  alterl  timent,  one  party  contends,  the  other/ears.  Cic. 

2   Aft!^' i"        1        al"  vivunt,  6ome  ^u-e  i«  one  nay,  other»  in  another.  Cic. 
2^  After  aUus,  ahter,  and  the  like,  atque,  ac,  and  et  often  mean  «««.- 
Non  alms  essem  atque  sum,  I  would  not  be  other  than  I  am.    Cic. 
8.  \Vhen  alter-aJter  refer  to  objects  previously  mentioned,  the  first  alter  usuaUv 
refers  to  the  latter  object,  but  may  refer  to  cither  •  '        "^"  ""er  usuaUy 

toopa,  Ues  bu   sometimes  Jott,  «ac^i  of  tico pereone  orthinga;  regularly  so  with  nouns 
which  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense:  b    -ny  so  witn  noun» 

S.ll^'pT'-'*'f-"""  ""''^■"'"'  ^''«"=«*"""'  ioth  parties  made  a  cruel  me  of  victory 
Sail.    Palmas  utrasque  tetendit,  he  extended  Hoth  hie  hande.  Verg.  ^^' 


CHAPTER    V. 
SYNTAX   OF  VERBS. 


SECTION    I. 

AGREEMENT    OF   VERBS.-USE    OF   VOICES. 

RULE  XXXVI.-Agreement  of  Verb  with  Subject. 

460.  A  finite  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  numbek 
and  PERSON : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world.   Cic.    Ego  reees 
ejec!,  Tos  tyrannos  intrOducitis,  I  have  banished  kings,  you  introduce  tu- 

to  ]»7^?"T%'«,  ^r"""™"  ^''"''  *Sree  with  the  subject  according 
to  4a».     See  also  301,  1  and  2  :  ^ 

=    Thebani  accusati  sunt,  the  Thehans  ivere  accused.   Cic. 

occfr!  wi/r!''  *^^  ^^«°^P^"°d  for^s  of  the  Infinitive,  the  participle  in  um  sometimes 
occurs  without  any  reference  to  the  gender  or  number  of  the  subject  •  «^^^"^^« 

..^       ff  ^''^'''^'^  "^""^^  imperavisset,  from  doubt  that  those  things  which  he  had 
commanded  would  take  place.  Sail.  ^  ^  ^"^ 

Note  2.-A  General  or  Indefinite  subject  is  often  denoted- 

1)  By  the  First  or  Third  Person  Plural,  and  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Second  Person 


i 


Singular ;  dlcimus^ '  we  {people)  say ' ;  dlcunt^  *they  say';  dlcds^  *you  {any  one)  may 

Bay ' : 

Si  beatl  esse  volumus,  if  we  wish  to  he  happy.  Cic.  Agere  quod  agas  considerate 
decet,  you  (one)  should  do  considerately  whatever  you  do  {one  does).  Cic. 

2)  By  an  Impersonal  Passive: 

Ad  fanum  concurritur,  they  rush  to  the  temple.  Cic.  Nisi  cum  virtute  vivatur,  un- 
less they  live  (unless  one  lives)  virtuously.  Cic. 

Note  3.— For  the  Pronominal  Subject  contained  in  the  verb,  see  368,  2. 

Note  4.— For  the  Omission  of  the  Verb,  see  368,  3. 

461.  Synesis. — Sometimes  the  predicate  is  construed  accord- 
ing to  the  real  meaning  of  the  subject  without  regard  to  grammat- 
ical gender  or  number.     Thus — 

1.  With  collective  nouns,  pars^  muUitudo,  and  the  like : 

Multitudo  abeunt,  the  multitude  depart.  Liv.  Pars  per  agros  dilapsi,  a 
part  (some)  dispersed  througli  tJie  fields.  Liv. 

Note  1.— Here  multitudo  and  pars,  though  singular  and  feminine  in  form,  are  plu- 
ral and  masculine  in  sense ;  see  also  438,  6.  Conversely,  the  Imperative  singular  may  be 
used  in  addressing  a  multitude  individually: 

Adde  dcfectiOnem  Siciliae,  add  (to  this,  soldiers)  ilie  revolt  of  Sicily.  Liv. 

Note  2.— Of  two  verbs  with  the  same  collective  noun,  the  former  is  often  singular^ 
and  the  latter  plural : 

Juventus  ruit  certantque,  the  youth  rush  forth  and  contend.  Verg. 

2.  With  mlliay  often  masculine  in  sense  : 

CaesI  sunt  tria  milia,  tJiree  thousand  men  were  slain.  Liv. 

3.  With  quisquc,  utcrquc,  alius — alium^  alter — alterum^  and  the  like : 
Uterque  cducunt,  they  each  lead  out,   Caes.     Alter  alterum  videmus,  we 

see  each  other.   Cic. 

4.  With  singular  subjects  accompanied  by  an  Ablative  with  cum: 

Dux  cum  principibus  capiuntur,  the  leader  ivith  his  chiefs  is  taken.  Liv. 
Quid  hue  tantum  hominum  (=  tot  hom^ines)  incedunt,  why  are  so  many  men 
coming  hither  ?  Plant.     See  also  438,  6.  .^  v 

5.  V^ii\i  partim—partim  in  the  sense  oi  pars— pars : 

Bonorum  partim  necessaria,  partim  non  necessaria  sunt,  of  good  things 
some  are  necessary^  others  are  not  necessary.   Cic. 

462.  Sometimes  the  verb  agrees,  not  with  its  subject,  but  with 
an  Appositive  or  with  a  Predicate  Noun  : 

Volsinil,  oppidum  Tuscorura,  concrematum  est,  Volsinii^  a  town  of  the 
Tuscans,  icas  burned.  Plin.  Non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda,  not  every 
error  should  he  called  folly.  Cic.  Puerl  Trojanum  dlcitur  agmen,  the  hoys  are 
called  the  Trojan  hand.  Verg. 

Note  1.— The  verb  regularly  agrees  with  the  appositive  when  that  is  urbs,  oppidum, 
or  clvitds,  in  apposition  with  plural  names  of  places,  as  in  the  first  example. 

Note  2.— The  verb  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  when  that  is  nearer  or  more  em- 
phatic than  the  subject,  as  in  the  second  example. 


i 


256 


AGREEMmT  OF  VERBS. 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 


257 


Note  S.—Thc  verb  sometimes  ngrees  with  a  noun  in  a  subordinate  clause  after  quam^ 
nisi,  etc. : 

Nihil  aliud  nisi  pax  quaeslta  est,  nothing  tut  peace  teas  sought.  Cic. 

483.  With  TWO  OR  MORE  suBJFXTS  the  verb  agrees — 

I.  With  one  subject,  and  is  understood  with  the  others : 

Aut  mores  spectari  aut  fortuna  solet,  either  character  or  fortune  is  ivont  to 
be  regarded.  Cic.  Homorus  fuit  et  Hcsiodus  ante  ROmam  conditam,  Homer 
and  Ilesiod  lived  (were)  before  the  founding  of  Rome.   Cic. 

II.  With  all  the  subjects  conjointly,  and  is  accordingly  in  the  plural 
number : 

Lentulus,  Scipio  perierunt,  Lentulus  and  Scipio  perished.  Cic.  Ego  et 
Cicero  valcmus,  Cicero  and  I  are  ivell.  Cic.  Tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  yoic  and 
Tullia  are  ivell.   Cic. 

1.  With  SUBJECTS  DiFFEniNG  IN  PERSON,  thc  vcrb  talvcs  the  first  person 
rather  than  thc  second,  and  the  second  rather  than  thc  third ;  see  examples. 

2.  For  Participles  in  Compound  Tenses,  see  439. 

3.  Two  Subjects  as  a  Unit. — Two  singular  subjects  forming  in  sense  a 
unit  or  whole,  admit  a  singular  verb  : 

Senatus  populusque  intcllegit,  the  senate  and  people  (i.  e.,  the  state  as  a 
unit)  understand.  Cic.  Tempus  necessitasque  postulat,  time  and  necessitij 
(i.  e.,  the  crisis)  demand.    Cic. 

4.  With  Aut  or  Nec. — When  the  subjects  connected  by  aut.^  vel^  nee, 
neque  or  seu,  differ  in  person,  the  verb  is  usually  in  the  plural ;  but  when  they 
are  of  the  same  person,  the  verb  usually  agrees  with  the  nearest  subject: 

Ilaec  neque  ego  neque  tu  fecimus,  neither  you  nor  I  have  done  these  things, 
Ter.    Aut  Brutus  aut  Cassius  judicavit,  either  Brutus  or  Cassius  judged.   Cic. 

464.  Voices. — With  transitive  verbs,  a  thought  may  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  writer  be  expressed  either  actively  or  passively.     But — 

I.  That  which  in  the  active  construction  would  be  the  object  must  be 
the  subject  in  the  passive ;  and — 

II.  That  which  in  the  active  would  be  the  subject  must  be  put  in  the  Abla^ 
live  with  a  or  ab  for  persons,  and  in  the  Ablative  alone  for  things  (415, 1. ;  420) : 

Deus  omnia  constituit,  God  ordained  all  things.  A  Deo  omnia  cOnstitiita 
sunt,  all  things  were  ordained  by  God.  Cic.  Del  providentia  mundum  ad- 
ministrat,  tJie  providence  of  God  rules  the  tcorld.  Dei  pr5videntia  mundus 
administratur,  the  luorld  is  ruled  by  the  providence  of  God.   Cic. 

465.  The  Passive  Voice,  like  the  Greek  Middle,*  is  sometimes 
equivalent  to  the  Active  with  a  reflexive  pronoun  : 

Lavantur  in  fluminibus,  they  bathe  (wash  themselves)  in  the  rivers.   Caes. 

1  Most  Passive  forms  once  had  both  a  Middle  and  a  Passive  meaninj^,  as  in  Greek: 
but  in  Latin  the  ^fiddle  or  Reflexive  meaning  has  nearly  disappeared,  though  retained 
to  a  certain  extent  in  special  verbs. 


Non  hic  victoria  vertitur,  not  iipon  this  point  (here)  does  victory  turn  (turn 
itself).  Verg. 

1.  Intransitive  Verbs  (193)  have  regularly  only  the  active  voice,  but 
they  are  sometimes  used  impersonally  in  the  passive : 

Curritur  ad  praetorium,  th^iy  run  to  the  praetorium  (it  is  run  to).  Cic. 
Mihi  cum  iis  vivendum  est,  I  must  live  with  them.   Cic. 

Note.— Verbs  which  are  usually  intransitive  are  occasionally  used  transitively,  es- 
pecially in  poetry : 

Ego  cur  invideor,  why  am  I  envied  f  Hor. 

2.  Deponent  Verbs,  though  passive  in  form,  are  in  signification  transitive 
or  intransitive  : 

Illud  mirabar,  I  admired  that.  Cic.  Ab  urbe  proficisci,  to  set  out  from 
the  city.   Caes. 

Note  1.— Originally  many  deponent  verbs  seem  to  have  had  the  force  of  the  Greek 
Middle  voice  :  glorior,  'I  boast  myself/  ♦  I  boast';  vescor,  'I  feed  myself.' 

Note  2.— Semi-Deponents  have  some  of  the  active  forms  and  some  of  the  passive, 
without  change  of  meaning;  sec  JJ68,  3. 

SECTION    II. 

THE    INDICATIVE    AND    ITS    TENSES. 

I.  Present  Indicative. 

466.  The  Present  Indicative  represents  the  action  of  the  verb 
as  taking  place  at  the  present  time : 

Ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  Cicero  and  I  are  well.  Cic.  Hoc  t5  rogo,  I  ask  you 
for  this.   Cic. 

Note.— The  Present  of  the  Active  Periphrastic  Conjugation  denotes  an  intended  or 
future  action ;  that  of  the  Passive,  2i  present  necessity  or  duty : 

Bellum  scripturus  sum,  /  intend  to  write  the  history  of  the  war.^  Sail.  Legendus 
est  h!c  orator,  this  orator  ought  to  be  read.^  Cic. 

467.  Hence  the  Present  Tense  is  used— 

I.  Of  actions  and  events  which  are  actually  taking  place  at  the  present 
time,  as  in  the  above  examples. 

II.  Of  actions  and  events  which,  as  belonging  to  all  time,  belong  of 
course  to  the  present,  as  general  truths  and  customs  : 

Nihil  est  amahilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue.  Cic. 
Fortes  fortuna  adjuvat,/or^ww<?  helps  the  brave.   Ter. 

III.  Of  past  actions  and  events  which  the  writer  wishes,  for  effect,  to 
picture  before  the  reader  as  present.  The  Present,  when  so  used,  is  called 
the  Historical  Present : 


1  Scripturus  sum  may  be  variously  rendered,  /intend  to  write,  am  about  to  tcrite, 
am  to  write,  am  destined  to  write,  etc. ;  legendus  est  means  he  ought  to  he  read,  de- 
serves to  be  read,  must  be  read,  etc. 


/ 


258 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE, 


TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE, 


259 


Jugurtha  vall5  inoenia  circumdat,  Jugurtlia  surrounded  the  city  with  a 
rampart.   Sail. 

1.  The  Historical  Present  is  used  much  more  freely  in  Latin  than  in 
English.     It  is  therefore  generally  best  rendered  by  a  past  tense. 

2.  The  Present  is  often  used  of  a  present  action  which  has  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  after  jamdiUf  jamdudum,  etc. : 

Jamdiu  ignore  quid  agas,  I  have  not  knozvn  for  a  long  time  what  you  have 
teen  doing,   Cic. 

3.  The  Present  in  Latin,  as  in  English,  may  be  used  of  authors  whose 
works  are  extant : 

Xenophon  facit  Socratem  disputantem,  Xenophon  represents  Socrates  dis- 
cussing,  Cic. 

4.  With  dum^  *  while,'  the  Present  is  generally  used,  whether  the  action 
is  present,  past,  or  future : 

Dum  ea  parant,^  Saguntum  oppugnabatur,  while  they  were  (are)  making 
these  preparations^  Saguntur,i  was  attacked,  Liv.  Dum  haec  gcruntur,  Cae- 
sarl  ntintiatum  est,  wJnle  these  things  we?'e  taking  place^  it  was  announced  to 
Caesar.  Caes. 

Note. — But  with  dum^  meanlDg  as  Jong  as,  the  Present  can  be  used  only  of  present 
time. 

5.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  action  really  future,  especially  in 
animated  discourse  and  in  conditions  : 

Quam  prendimus  arcem,  xvhat  stronghold  do  we  seize j  or  are  loe  to  seize  f  Verg. 
Si  vincimus,  omnia  tuta  erunt,  if  we  conquer ,^  all  things  will  he  safe.  Sail. 

6.  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : 
Virtutem  accendit,  he  tries  to  kindle  their  valor.   Verg.     Quid  me  terres, 

tvhy  do  you  try  to  terrify  me?  Verg. 

II.  Imperfect  Indicative. 

468.  The  Imperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  taking 
place  in  past  time  : 

Stabant  nobilissimi  juvenes,  there  stood  (were  standing)  most  noble  youths, 
Liv.  Colles  oppidum  cingebant,  hills  encompassed  the  town,  Caes.  Moturus 
exercitum  erat,  he  was  intending  to  move  his  army,  Liv. 

Note. — For  the  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences, 
see  511,  2 

469.  Hence  the  Imperfect  is  used  especially — 

I.  In  lively  description^  whether  of  scenes  or  events : 

Ante  oppidum  planities  patebat,  before  the  town  extended  a  plain,  Caes. 
Fulgentes  gladios  videbant,  they  saw  (were  seeing)  the  gleaming  swords,   Cic. 

II.  Of  cfustomary  or  repeated  actions  and  events,  often  rendered  was 
wont^  etc. : 

*  Here  the  time  denoted  by  parant  is  present  relatively  to  oppugnabatur^  and  there- 
fore really  past. 


Pausanias  epulabatur  more  PersSrum,  Pausanias  was  wont  to  banquet  in 
the  Persian  style,   Nep. 

1.  The  Imperfect  is  sometimes  used  of  an  attempted  or  intended  action : » 
Sedabant  tumultus,  they  attempted  to  quell  the  seditions.   Liv. 

2.  The  Imperfect  is  often  used  of  a  past  action  which  had  been  going  on 
for  some  time,  especially  with,  jamdiu^  jamduditm^  etc. :  i 

Domicilium  Komae  multos  jam  annos  habebat,  he  had  already  for  many 
years  had  his  residence  at  Borne,   Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  uses  the  Imperfect  where  the  English  requires  the 
Present :  ^ 

Pastum  animantibus  natura  eum  qui  cuique  aptus  erat,  comparavit,  nature 
has  prepared  for  animals  that  food  ivhich  is  adapted  to  each.    Cic. 

Note  l.~For  the  Imperfect  in  Letters,  see  473, 1. 
Note  2.— For  the  Descriptive  Imperfect  in  Narration,  see  471,  6. 
Note  3.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Pkopeiett,  Nkcessitt, 
etc^  see  476,  4. 

III.  Future  Indicative. 

470.  The  Future  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  one  which 
will  take  place  in  future  time  : 

Scrlbam  ad  te,  I  shall  write  to  you,  Cic.  Nunquam  aberrabimus,  we  shall 
never  go  astray,    Cic. 

1.  In  Latin,  as  in  English,  the  Future  Indicative  sometimes  has  the  force  of 
an  Imperative : 

Curabis  et  scribes,  you  will  take  care  and  torite,   Cic. 

2.  Actions  which  really  belong  to  future  time  are  almost  invariably  ex- 
pressed by  the  Future  tense,  though  sometimes  put  in  the  Present  in  English : 

Naturam  si  sequemur,  nunquam  aberrgibimus^  if  we  follow  nature,  we  shall 
never  go  astray,   Cic. 

rV.  Perfect  Indicative. 

471.  The  Perfect  Indicative  has  two  distinct  uses: 

I.  As  the  Present  Perfect  or  Perfect  Definite,  it  represents 
the  action  as  at  present  completed,  and  is  rendered  by  our  Perfect 
with  have  : 

Dg  genere  belli  dixi,  I  have  spoken  of  the  character  of  the  war,   Cic. 

II.  As  the  Historical  Perfect  or  Perfect  Indefinite,  it  rep- 
resents the  action  simply  as  an  historical  fact : 

1  Observe  that  tlie  peculiarities  of  the  Present  reappear  in  the  Imperfect.  This  arises 
frt)m  the  fact  that  these  two  tenses  are  precisely  alike  in  representing  the  action  in  its 
progress^  and  that  they  differ  only  in  ti7ne.  The  one  views  the  action  in  the  present,  the 
other  transfers  it  to  the  past. 

'■*  This  occurs  occasionally  in  the  statement  of  general  truths  and  in  the  description 
of  natural  scenes,  but  in  such  cases  the  truth  or  the  scene  is  viewed  not  from  the  present 
but  from  the  past. 


360 


TENSES  OF  INDICATIVE. 


Miltiades  est  accusatus,  Miltiades  was  accused,  Nep.  Quid  facturl  fuistis, 
wliai  did  you  intend  to  do^  or  what  would  you  have  done?  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Perfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  in  conditional  sentences,  see 
476, 1. 

1.  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used — 

1)  Instead  of  the  Present  to  denote  the  suddenness  of  the  action: 

Terra  tremit,  mortalia  corda  strilvit  pavor,  the  earth  trembles^  fear  over- 
whelms (has  overwhelmed)  the  hearts  of  mortals,  Verg. 

2)  To  contrast  the^as^  with  the  jpresent^  implying  that  w^hat  was  true  then 
is  not  true  now : 

Habuit,  non  habet,  he  had,  hut  has  not.   Cic.     Fuit  Ilium,  Ilium  ivas.  Verg. 

2.  The  Perfect  Indicative  with  paene^  prope^  may  often  be  rendered  by 
mighty  tvould,  or  by  the  Pluperfect  Indicative  : 

Brutum  nOn  minus  amo,  paene  dixi,  quam  te,  /  love  Brutus  not  less,  I 
might  almost  say,  or  I  had  almost  said,  than  I  love  you,   Cic. 

3.  The  Latin  sometimes  employs  the  Perfect  and  Pluperfect  where  the 
English  uses  the  Present  and  Impeifect,  especially  in  repeated  actions,  and 
in  verbs  which  want  the  Present  (297) : 

Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  i  the  past.  Cic.  Cum  ad  villam  vOnI, 
hoc  mO  delectat,  when  I  come  (have  come)  to  a  villa,  this  pleases  me,  Cic. 
Memineram  PauUum,  l7\membered  Faullm,   Cic. 

4.  Conjunctions  meaning  as  soon  as^  are  usually  followed  by  the  Perfect; 
sometimes  by  the  Imperfect  or  Historical  Present.  But  the  Pluperfect  is 
sometimes  used,  especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action : 

Postquam  cecidit  Ilium,  after  (as  soon  as)  Ilium  fell,  or  had  fallen,  Verg. 
His  ubi  natum  prosequitur  3  dictis,  when  he  had  addi^essed  Ms  son  with  these 
words,  Verg.  Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  had  been  consul.*  Cic. 
Anno  tertio  postquam  profugerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled,  Nep. 

5.  In  Subordinate  Clauses  after  cum  (quum),  si,  etc.,  the  Perfect  is  some- 
times used  of  Kepeated. Actions,  General  Truths,  and  Customs  : » 

Cum  ad  villam  v6nl,  hoc  me  delectat,  ivhenever  I  come  (have  come)  to  a 
villa,  this  delights  me.   Cic. 

Note. — In  such  cases  the  principal  clause  generally  retains  the  Present,  as  in  the 
example  just  given,  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  sometimes  admits  the  Perfect : 

Tulit  punctum  qui  miscuit  utile  dulcl,  he  wins  (has  yfon)  favor  who  combines  (has 
combined)  the  useful  with  the  agreeable.  Ilor. 

6.  In  Animated  Narrative,  the  Perfect  usually  narrates  the  leading  events, 
and  the  Imperfect  describes  the  attendant  circumstances : 

Cultum  mutavit,  veste  Medica  utebatur,  epulabatur  more  Persarum,  he 
changed  his  mode  of  life,  used  the  Median  dress,  feasted  in  the  Persian  style, 

1  Literally,  has  recalled,  and  so  remembers,  as  the  result  of  the  act.  The  Latin  pre- 
sents the  completed  act,  the  English  the  result, 

2  As  postquam,  ubi,  ubi  prlmum,  ut,  utprlmum,  simul  atque  {dc),  etc. 

3  Historical  present;  lit.,  when  he  attends. 

*  And  so  was  then  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

*  This  use  of  the  Latin  Perfect  corresponds  to  the  Gnomic  Aorist  in  Greek. 


TENSES   OF  INDICATIVE, 


2G1 


Nep.     Se  in  oppida  receperunt  murlsque  se  tenebant,  they  betooJc  themselves 
into  their  towns  and  hept  themselves  within  their  walls,   Liv, 

Note  1.— The  Compound  Tenses  in  the  Passive  often  denote  the  result  of  the  action. 
Thus,  doctus  est  may  mean  either  he  has  been  instructed,  or  7ie  is  a  learned  man  (lit., 
an  instructed  man) : 

Fuit  doctus  ex  disciplinu  Stoicorum,  he  was  instructed  in  (lit.,  out  of)  the  learning 
of  the  Stoics.  Cic.    Navis  parata  fuit,  the  vessel  was  ready  (lit.,  icas  prepared).  Liv. 

Note  2.— For  the  Perfect  in  Letters,  see  473,  1. 

Note  3.— For  the  Jlistorical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Peopeiety,  Necessity, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 

V.  Pluperfect  Indicative. 

472.  The  Pluperfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time  : 

Pyrrhi  temporibus  jam  Apollo  versus  facere  desierat,  in  the  times  of  Pyr- 
rhus  Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  make  verses.^  Cic.  Copias  quas  pro  castris 
coUocaverat,  reduxit,  he  led  bach  the  forces  which  he  had  stationed  before  the 
camp,  Caes.  Cum  esset  Demosthenes,  multi  oratores  clari  fuerunt  et  antea 
fuerant,  whe7i  DemostJienes  lived  there  were  many  illustrious  orators,  and  there 
had  been  before,   Cic. 

1.  In  Letters,  the  writer  often  adapts  the  tense  to  the  time  of  the  reader, 
using  the  Imperfect  or  Perfect  of  present  actions  and  events,  and  the  Pluper- 
fect of  those  which  are  past :  * 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem ;  ad  tuas  omnes  epistuks  rcscripseram 
prldie,3/Aaz;e  (had)  nothing  to  write;  I  replied  to  all  your  letters  yesterday. 
Cic.  Pridie  Idus  haec  scripsi ;  eo  die  3  apud  Pomponium  eram  cenaturus,* 
I  write  this  on  the  day  before  the  Ides  ;  lam  going  to  dine  to-day  icith  Pom- 
ponius,   Cic. 

2.  The  Pluperfect  after  cum,  si,  etc.,  is  often  used  of  Eepeated  Actions, 
General  Truths,  and  Customs  :  ^ 

Si  hostes  deterrere  nequlverant  circumveniebant,  if  tJiey  ivere  (h&d  been) 
unable « to  deter  the  enemy,  they  surrounded  them.   Sail. 

Note  1.— For  the  Pluperfect  in  the  sense  of  the  English  Imperfect,  see  471,  3. 
Note  2.— For  the  Historical  Tenses  in  expressions  of  Duty,  Pkopriety,  Necessity, 
etc.,  see  476,  4. 


^  Observe  that  desierat  represents  the  action  as  ah-eady  completed  at  the  time  desig-- 
nated. 

2  This  change  is  by  no  means  uniformly  made,  but  is  subject  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
writer.     It  is  most  common  near  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  letters. 

3  Observe  that  the  adverbs  and  the  adverbial  expressions  are  also  adapted  to  the  time 
of  the  reader.  Ilerl,  *  yesterday,'  becomes  to  the  rasi^er  pridie,  'the  day  before '— i.  e., 
the  day  before  the  writing  of  the  letter.  In  the  same  way  Jiodie,  '  to-day,'  'this  day,'  be- 
comes to  the  reader  eo  die,  *that  day.' 

*  The  Imperfect  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugation  is  sometimes  thus  used  o^  future 
events  which  are  expected  to  happen  before  the  receipt  of  the  letter.  Events  which  will 
be  future  to  the  reader  as  well  as  to  the  writer  must  be  expressed  by  the  Future. 

^  See  the  similar  use  of  the  Perfect,  471,  5. 

*  That  is,  tchenever  they  were  unable. 


/ 


363 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE. 


USE  OF  INDICATIVE. 


363 


0 

0 


Ni; 


VI.  Future  Perfect  Indicative. 

473.  The  Future  Perfect  Indicative  represents  the  action  as 
one  which  will  be  completed  at  some  future  time : 

Eomam  cum  venero,  scribam  ad  to,  when  I  shall  have  reached  Rome^  I  will 
write  to  you.  Cic.  Dum  tu  haec  leges,  ego  ilium  fortasse  convgnerO,  when 
you  read  this^  I  shall  perhaps  have  already  met  him.  Cic. 

1.  The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  complete  accom- 
plishment of  the  work : 

Ego  meum  officium  praestiterO,  I  shall  discharge  my  duty.   Caes. 

2.  The  Future  Perfect  is  sometimes  found  in  conditional  clauses  where 
we  use  the  Present : 

Si  interpretari  potuerO,  his  verbis  lititur,  if  I  can  (shall  have  been  able 
to)  understand  him^  he  uses  these  words.   Cic. 

VII.  Use  of  the  Indicative. 
RULE   XXXVII.— Indicative. 

474.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  loorld.  Cic.  Nonne 
expulsus  est  patria,  was  he  not  banished  from  his  country  ?  Cic.  Hoc  feci 
dum  licuit,  /  did  this  as  long  as  it  was  permitted.   Cic. 

475.  The  Indicative  is  thus  used  in  treating  of  facts — 

I.  In  Principal  Clauses^^  whether  Declarative  as  in  the  first  example 
or  Interrogative  as  in  the  second. 

II.  In  Subordinate  Clauses.     Thus — 

1.  In  Relative  Clauses: 

Dixit  id  quod  dignissimum  re  publica  fuit,  he  stated  that  which  was  most 
worthy  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Quicquam  bonum  est,  quod  non  eum  qui  id 
possidet  meliorem  facit,  is  anything  good  which  does  not  make  him  letter  who 
possesses  it  f  Cic. 

KoTB.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Eelative  Clauses,  see  497;  500;  603;  607,  2,  etc. 

2.  In  Conditional  Clauses: 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a  state,  I  am  a  citizen.   Cic. 

Note  1.— For  the  special  uses  of  the  Indicative  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  508. 
Note  2.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Conditional  Sentences,  see  509;  610. 

3.  In  Concessive  Clauses: 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  tamcn  nunquam  dicunt,  although  they  understand^ 
they  never  speak.   Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Concessive  Clauses,  see  615. 


*  Including,  of  course,  all  simple  sentences. 


4.  In  Causal  Clauses: 

Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanksgiving  has  been  decreed.   Cic. 
Quia  honore  digni  habentur,  because  they  are  deemed  ivorthy  of  honor.   Curt. 
Note.— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516;  517. 

5.  In  Temporal  Clauses: 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  tvliile  they  are  silent  they  approve.  Cic.  Prius- 
quam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light.   Cic. 

Note,— For  the  Subjunctive  in  Temporal  Clauses,  see  519;  520;  531. 

476.  Special  Uses. — The  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  where 
our  idiom  would  suggest  the  Subjunctive : 

1.  The  Indicative  of  the  Periphrastic  Conjugations  is  often  so  used  in 
the  historical  tenses,  especially  in  conditional  sentences  (511,  2); 

Haec  condicio  non  accipienda  fuit,  this  condition  should  not  have  been  ac- 
cepted.  Cic. 

2.  The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative,  particularly  the  Pluperfect, 
are  sometimes  used  for  effect,  to  represent  as  an  actual  fact  something 
which  is  shown  by  the  context  never  to  have  become  fully  so : 

Viceramus,  nisi  recepisset  Antonium,  we  should  have  (lit.,  liad)  conquered^ 
had  he  not  received  Antony.   Cic.     See  511,  1. 

3.  Pronouns  and  Relative  Adverbs,  made  general  by  being  doubled  or  by 
assuming  the  suffix  cumquc  (187,  3),  take  the  Indicative: 

Quisquis  est,  is  est  sapiens,  tvh^ever  he  is,  he  is  wise.  Cic.  Hoc  ultimum, 
utcunque  initum  est,  proelium  fuit,  this,  however  it  was  commenced,  ivas  the 
last  battle.  Liv.  Quidquid  oritur,  qualecumque  est,  causam  habet,  whatever 
comes  into  being,  of  whatever  character  it  may  be  (lit.,  is),  it  has  a  cause.   Cic. 

4.  In  expressions  of  Buty,  Propriety,  Necessity,  Ability,  and  the  like, 
the  Latin  often  uses  the  Indicative,  chiefly  in  the  historical  tenses,  in  a 
manner  somewhat  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Non  suscipl  bellum  oportuit,  the  war  should  not  have  been  undertaken.^ 
Liv.  Eum  contumeliis  onerasti,  quem  colere  debebas,  you  have  loaded  with 
imults  one  whom  you  should  have  (ought  to  have)  revered.  Cic.  Multos  pos- 
sum bonos  viros  nominare,  I  might  name  (lit.,  /  am  able  to  name)  many  good 
men.  Cic.  Ilanc  mecum  poteras  requiescere  noctem,  you  might  rest  (might 
have  rested)  with  me  this  night.  Verg. 

5.  The  Indicative  of  the  verb  ium  is  often  used  with  longum,  aequum, 
aequius,  difficile,  justum,  melius,  par,  Utilius,  etc.,  in  such  expressions  as 
longum  est,  *  it  would  be  tedious,'  melius  erat,  *  it  would  have  been  better ' : 

Longum  est  persequi  utilitates,  it  would  be  tedious  (is  a  long  task)  to  re- 
count the  uses.  Cic.  Melius  fuerat,  promissum  non  esse  servatum,  it  would 
have  been  better  that  the  promise  should  not  have  been  kept.   Cic. 

1  Literally,  it  was  fitting  or  proper  that  the  war  should  not  be  undertaken. 


264 


SUBJUNCTIVE, 


SECTION    III. 

GENERAL.   WllZW    OF    THE    SUBJUNCTIVE 

ANE>    ITS    TENSES. 

477.  The  Latin  Subjunctiye  ^  has  two  principal  uses — 

I.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  willed  or  desired  : 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country.   Cic. 

II.  It  may  represent  an  action  as  probable  or  possible  : 

Quaet'at  quispiam,  some  one  may  inquire.  Cic. 

478.  Tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  do  not  designate  the  time  of 
the  action  so  definitely  as  in  the  Indicative. 

479.  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  ^  embraces 

in  a  vague  and  general  manner  both  present  and  future  time :  ^ 

Amemus  patriam,  let  us  love  our  country  (now  and  ever).  Civj.  Quaerat 
quispiam,  some  one  may  (or  will)  inquire  (at  any  time).  Cic. 

480.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  'past  and  sometimes  to  the  present : 

CrederSs  victos,  vanquished  you  ivould  have  thought  them.  Li  v.  Utinara 
p6ssem,  would  that  Iivere  able  (now).  Cic. 

48 1.  The  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  relates 
sometimes  to  the  past^  but  more  frequently  to  the  present  or  fu- 
ture : 


1  The  Latin  Subjunctive,  it  will  be  remembered  (p.  117,  foot-note  4),  contains  the 
forms  and  the  meaning  of  two  kindred  moods,  the  Subjunctive  proper,  and  the  Optative. 
In  Latin,  the  forms  characteristic  of  these  two  moods,  used  without  any  difference  of  mean- 
ing, are  made  to  supplement  each  other.  Thus,  in  the  Present,  the  Subjunctive  forms 
are  found  in  the  First  Conjugation,  and  the  Optative  forms  in  the  Second,  Third,  and 
Fourth.  In  their  origin  they  are  only  special  developments  of  certain  forms  of  the  Pres- 
ent Indicative,  denoting  continued  and  attempted  action.  From  this  idea  ot  attempted 
action  was  readily  developed  on  the  one  hand  desire,,  icill,,  as  we  attempt  only  what  we 
desire,  and  on  the  other  hand  probability,  possibility,  as  we  shall  very  likely  accomplish 
what  we  are  already  attempting.  These  two  meanings,  united  in  one  word,  lie  at  the 
basis  of  all  Subjunctive  constructions  in  Latin.  On  the  origin,  history,  and  7ise  of  the 
Subjunctive,  see  Delbruck,  'Conjuuctiv  und  Optativ  ^ ;  Curtius,  *  Verbum,'  II.,  pp.  55-95; 
Draeger,  II.,  pp.  439-743;  Koby,  II.,  pp.  202-848;  also  a  paper  by  the  author  on  *The 
Development  of  the  Latin  Subjunctive  in  Principal  Clauses,'  Transactions  Am.  Phil. 
Assoc,  1879. 

2  For  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  clauses,  see  490. 

3  The  Present  Subjunctive  in  its  origin  is  closely  related  both  in  form  and  in  meaning 
to  the  Future  Indicative.  Thus,  in  the  Third  and  Fourth  Conjugations,  no  future  forms 
for  the  Indicative  have  been  developed,  but  Subjunctive  and  Optative  forms  supply  their 
place,  as  regam,  audiam  (Subjunctive),  and  reges,  reget,  etc.,  and  audies,  audiety  etc. 
(Optative). 


X 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  DESIRE. 


265 


Fuerit  malus  civis,  he  may  have  leen  (admit  that  he  was)  a  had  citizen.  Cic. 
Ne  transieris  i  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the  Ehro  (now  or  at  any  time).   Liv. 

482.  The   Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  principal  clauses  re- 
lates to  the  past : 

Utinam  potuissem,  ivould  that  I  had  been  able.  Cic. 

SECTION    IV. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    IN    PRINCIPAL    CLAUSES. 

RULE  XXXVm.— Subjunctive  of  Desire,  Command. 

483.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

not  as  real,  but  AS  DESIRED  : 

Valeant  cives,  may  the  citizens  be  well.  Cic.  Amemus  patriam,  let  us 
LOVE  our  country.  Cic.  A  nobis  dlligatur^  let  him  be  loyed  by  us.  Cic. 
Scrlbere  ne  pigrere,,  do  not  neglect  to  wHte.  Cic. 

1.  Tire  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  often  accompanied  by  utinam^  and  some- 
times, especially  in  the  poets,  by  nt,  si,  o  si: 

Utinam  conata  efficere  possim,  may  I  be  able  to  accomplish  my  endeavors. 
Cic.     Ut  ilium  di  perdant,  would  that  the  gods  would  destroy  him.  Ter. 

2.  Force  of  Tenses.— The  Present  and  Perfect  imply  that  the  wish  may 
be  fulfilled  ;  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  that  it  can  not  be  fulfilled: 

Sint  beuti,  may  they  be  happy.  Cic.  Ne  transieris  Iberum,  do  not  cross  the 
Ehro.  Liv.  Utinara  possem,  utinam  potuissem,  would  that  I  were  able,  would 
that  I  had  been  able.   Cic. 

NoTE.-The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  may  often  be  best  rendered  should,  should 
have,  ougJit  to  have : 

Hoc  dlceret,  he  should  have  said  this.  Cic.  Mortem  oppetiisses,  you  should  have 
met  death.  Cic. 

3.  Negatives.— With  the  Suhjunotive  of  Desire,  the  negative  is  n^,  rarely 
non  ;  with  a  connective,  neve,  neu,  rarely  neque : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Non  recedamus,  let  us  not  recede.  Cic. 
Ames  dici  pater,  neu  sinas,  etc.,  may  you  love  to  be  called  father,  and  may  you 
not  permit,  etc.  Hor.  Neve  minor  neu  sit  productior,  let  it  be  neither  shorter 
nor  longer.    Hor. 

^ai^.—mdum,  ' not  to  say,'  'much  less,'  is  used  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Vix  in  tectis  frigus  vltatur,  nedum  in  man  sit  facile  abesse  ab  injuria,  the  cold  is 

avoided  with  difficulty  in  our  houses,  much  less  is  it  easy  to  escape  (to  be  absent  from) 

injury  on  the  sea.  Cic. 

4.  The  first  person  of  the  Subjunctive  is  often  found  in  earnest  or  solemn 
Affirmations  : 


»  Observe  that  the  Perfect  thus  used  does  not  at  all  differ  in  time  from  the  Present, 
but  that  it  calls  attention  to  the  completion  of  the  action. 

12 


266 


POTENTIAL  SUBJUNCTIVE, 


POTENTIAL   SUBJUNCTIVE, 


267 


Moriar,  si  puto,  may  I  die,  if  I  think.   Cic.     Ne  sim  salvus,  si  scribS,  may  I 
not  he  safe,  if  I  write.  Cic.     SoUicitat,  ita  vivam,  as  I  live,  it  troubles  me,^  Cic. 

5.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  sometimes  used  in  Relative  Clauses  : 
Quod  faustum  sit,  regem  create,  elect  a  king,  and  may  it  he  an  auspicious 

event  (may  which  be  auspicious).   Liv.     Senectus,  ad  quam  utinara  pervenia- 
tis,  old  age,  to  which  may  you  attain.  Cic. 

Note.— For  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  in  Subordinate  Clauses,  see  486,  HI.,  note, 
with  foot-note. 

6.  Modo,  modo  ne,  may  accompany  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  : 

Modo  Juppiter  adsit,  only  let  Jupiter  he  present.  Verg.  Modo  ne  laudent, 
only  let  them  not  praise.  Cic. 

484.  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  may  be  in  meaning — 

I.  Optative,  as  in  prayers  and  wishes : 

Sint  beati,  may  they  he  happy.  Cic.  Di  bene  vertant,  may  the  gods  cause 
it  to  turn  out  well.   Plant. 

II.  Hortative,  as  in  exhortations  and  entreaties : 
Consulamus  bonis,  let  lis  consult  for  the  good.  Cic. 

III.  Concessive,  as  in  admissions  and  concessions : 

Fuerint  pertinaces,  grant  (or  admit)  that  they  were  obstinate.  Cic. 

IV.  Imperative,  as  in  mild  commands,  admonitions,  warnings,  etc.,  used 
chiefly  in  prohibitions : 

Ilium  jocum  ne  sis  aspematus,  do  not  despise  that  jest.  Cic.  Scrlbere  ne 
pigrere,  do  not  neglect  to  write.  Cic. 

Note  1.— In  prohibitions,  the  Perfect  tense  is  f^enerally  used : 

Ne  trunsieris  IbGrum,  do  not  cross  the  Ebro.  Liv. 

Note  2.— Except  in  prohibitions,  the  Second  Person  Singular  in  the  best  prose  is 
used  almost  exclusively  of  an  indefinite  you,  meaning-  one,  any  one  : 

Isto  bono  iitare,  you  should  use  (i.  e.,  one  should  use)  that  advantage.  Cic. 

V.  Deliberative,  as  in  deliberative  questions,  to  ask  what  should  be  : 
lluic  cedamus,  hujus  condiciones  audiamus,  shall  we  yield^  to  him,  shall 

we  listen  to  his  terms  f  Cic.     Quid  facerem,  what  was  I  to  don  Verg. 

RULE  XXXIX.— Potential  Subjunctive. 

485.  The  Stibjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action 

NOT  AS  REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  : 

Hic  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire.  Cic.  Ita  laudem  in- 
veniOs,  thus  you  will  (or  may)  obtain  praise.  Ter.  Ita  amicos  pares,  thus 
YOU  WILL  MAKE  friends.   Ter.     Yix  dicere  ausim,  I  should  scarcely  dare  to 


1  Here  ita  mvam  means,  may  I  so  live  (i.  e.,  may  I  live  only  in  case  this  is  true). 

2  Or,  ought  we  to  yield,  is  it  you/r  wish  that  we  should  yield  t 
8  Or,  what  should  I  have  done  t 


Z  10  i 

-    !^ 


say.  Liv.  Crederes  vietos,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them.  Liv. 
Forsitan  quaeratis,*  joer7ia/>s  you  may  inquire.  Cic.  Hoc  nemo  dixerit,  no 
one  would  say  this.  Cic.  Quis  dubitet  (=  nemo  diwbit^i),  who  would  doubt 
(or  who  doubts  =  no  one  doubts)  ?  Cic.  Hoc  quis  ferre  possit,  who  ivould 
he  able  to  endure  this  ?   Cic. 

Note  1. — In  the  Potential  Subjunctive,  the  Perfect  often  has  nearly  the  same  force  as 
the  Present,  and  the  Imperfect  is  often  used  where  we  should  expect  the  Pluperfect: 
dlceres,  '  you  would  have  said ' ;  crederes,  putdres, '  you  would  have  thought ' ;  videres, 
cerneres,  '  you  would  have  seen ' : 

Tu  Platonem  lauddverls,  you  wottld  praise  Plato.  Cic.  Maestl,  crederes  victoa, 
redeunt  in  castra,  sad,  vanquished  you  would  have  thought  them,  they  returned  to 
the  camp.  Liv. 

Note  2.— On  Tenses,  see  also  478-483. 

Note  8.— The  Second  Person  Singular,  especially  of  the  Imperfect,  is  often  used  of  an 
indefinite  you,  meaning  one,  any  one:  crederes,  'you  would  have  thought,'  'anyone 
would  have  thought.' 

486.  In  the  Potential  sense,  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 

I.  In  Declarative  Sentences,  to  express  an  affirmation  modestly,  doubtfully^ 
or  conditionally  ;  see  examples. 

Note  1.— Thus,  in  the  language  of  politeness  and  modesty,  the  Potential  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  in  verbs  of  wishing  and  thinking:  velim,  'I  should  wish,'  for  xoJ^,  'I 
wish';  nolim,  *I  should  be  unwilling' ;  mdlim,  'I  should  prefer': 

Ego  censeam,  /  should  think,  or  /  am  inclined  to  tliink.  Liv.  Mihi  dari  velim,  1 
should  like  to  have  it  given  to  me.  Cic. 

Note  2.— The  Potential  Subjunctive  is  used  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sen- 
tences; see  507, 1,  with  foot-note. 

II.  In  Interrogative  Sentences,  to  ask  not  what  is,  but  what  is  likely  to 
be,  what  may  be  or  would  be,  generally  implying  a  negative  answer,  as  in 
the  last  two  examples  under  the  rule. 

Note.— The  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  the  interrogative  ne,  occurs  in  ques- 
tions expressive  of  impatience  or  surprise :  ^ 

Te  ut  ulla  res  frangat,  how  should  anything  subdue  you  f  Cic.  Egone  ut  mentiar, 
that  I  should  speak  falsely  f  Plant. 

III.  In  Subordinate  Clauses,  whatever  the  connective,  to  represent  the 
action  as  possible  rather  than  real : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  he  without  its  feasts. 
Cic.  Quoniam  non  possent,  since  they  would  not  be  able.  Caes.  Ubi  res  pos- 
ceret,  whenever  the  case  might  demand.   Liv. 

Note.— From  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire  and  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  principal 
clauses  have  been  developed  the  various  uses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses. ^ 

*  After  forsitan  =fors  sit  an,  '  the  chance  may  be  whether,'  *  perhaps,'  the  Sub- 
junctive was  originally  in  an  indirect  question  (529),  but  it  may  be  best  treated  as  Poten- 
tial.   So  also  with/c/rsaw- and/orto««6. 

2  Some  grammarians  assume  an  ellipsis  of  a  predicate,  as  credibile  est,  fieri  potest,  etc. 

8  Thus,  the  Subju/nctive  of  Desire  is  used  in  final,  conditional,  and  concessive 
clauses ;  the  Potential  Subjunctive  in  clauses  of  remdt,  and  in  various  others  denoting 


268  IMPERATIVE, 

SECTION    V. 

THE    IMPERATIVE    AND    ITS    TENSES. 

RULE  XL.— Imperative. 

487,  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhorta- 
tions, and  ENTREATIES  ! 

Justitiam  cole,  practice  justice.  Cic.  Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  (o 
misfortunes.  Verg.  Si  quid  in  te  peccavl,  TgnOsce,  if  I  have  sinned  against 
you^  pardon  me.   Cic. 

1.  The  Present  Imperative  corresponds  to  the  Imperativ^e  in  English : 
ivi^iiiiixvii  co\q^  practice  justice.  Cic.    Perge,  Catilina,  ^o,  CVif^i^fw^.  Cic. 

2.  The  Future  Imperative  corresponds  to  the  imperative  use  of  the  Eng- 
lish Future  with  shall^  or  to  the  Imperative  let^  and  is  used — 

1)  In  COMMANDS  msolvmg futwe  rather  than  present  action : 

Rem  penditote,  you  shall  consider  4he  subject.  Cic.  Crds  petito,  dabitur, 
ash  to-morrow y  it  shall  he  granted.  Plant. 

2)  In  LAWS,  orders,  precepts,  etc.,  especially  in  prohibitions: 
COnsules  neminl  parento,  the  consuls  shall  he  suhject  to  no  one.  Cic.     Sal  lis 

popull  suprema  lex  esto,  the  safety  of  the  people  shall  he  the  supreme  law.  Cic. 

Note. — The  general  distinction  between  the  Present  Imperative  and  the  Future  is 
often  disregarded,  especially  in  poetry :  i 

Ubl  aciem  viderls,  turn  ordines  dissipa,  'when  you  sJiall  see  the  line  of  hattle^  then 
scatter  the  ranks.  Li  v.  Quoniam  supplicutio  dCcrC'ta  est,  celebriitote  illos  dies,  since  a 
thanksgiving  has  been  decreed^  celebrate  those  days.  Cic. 

3.  An  Imperative  clause  may  be  used  instead  of  a  Conditional  clause : 
Lacesse,  jam  videbis  furentera,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him), 

you  will  at  once  see  him  frantic.  Cic. 

4.  The  place  of  the  Imperative  may  be  supplied  by  the  Subjunctive  of  De- 
sire (483),  or  by  the  Future  Indicative : 

Ne  audeant,  let  them  not  dare.  Cic.  Quod  optimum  videbitur,  faciCs,  you 
will  do  what  shall  seeni  best.  Cic. 

488.  In  prohibitions  or  negative  commands,  the  negative  ne^  rarely 
wow,  accompanies  the  Imperative,  and  if  a  connective  is  required,  neve  or 
neu  is  generally  used,  rarely  neque  : 

Tu  ne  cede  malls,  do  not  yield  to  misfortunes.  Verg.  Hominem  mortuum 
in  urbe  ne  sepelito,  neve  urito,  thou  shalt  not  bury  nor  hwn  a  dead  body  in  tlie 
city.  Cic. 


what  is  likely  to  be.  Moreover,  from  these  two  leading  uses  was  developed  the  idea  of  a 
conceived  or  assumed  action,  which  probably  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  the  other  uses 
of  this  mood,  as  in  causal  and  temporal  clauses^  in  indirect  questions^  and  in  the 
subordinate  clauses  of  the  indirect  discourse. 

1  Thus  the  Future  is  especially  common  in  certain  verbs ;  and,  indeed,  in  some  verbs, 
as  scihn,  meminl^  etc.,  it  is  the  only  form  in  common  use. 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 


269 


t 


.  489.  Instead  of  ne  with  the  Present  Imperative,  the  best  prose  writers 
generally  use — 

1)  Noll  and  nollte  with  the  Infinitive: 

Nollte  putare,  do  not  think  (be  unwilling  to  think).  Cic. 

2)  Fac  ne  or  cavl,  with  the  Subjunctive : 

Fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures  hoc  tempore,  do  not  attend  to  anything  else  at  this 
time.  Cic.     Cavl  facias,  beivare  of  doing  it,  or  see  that  you  do  not  do  it.  Cic. 

3)  Ne  with  the  Perfect  Subjunctive,  rarely  with  the  Present ;  see  484, 

IV.,  note  1. 

SECTION    VI. 

MOODS    IN    SUBORDINATE    CLAUSES. 

I.  Tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  in  Subordinate  Clauses.     . 

490.  In  subordinate  clauses  the  tenses  of  the  Subjunctive  con- 
form to  the  following  rule  : 

RULE  XM.— Sequence  of  Tenses. 

491.  Principal  tenses  depend  upon  principal  tenses; 
historical  upon  historical : 

Nltitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer.'  Cic.  Nem5  erit  qui  censeat, 
there  will  be  no  one  who  will  think.'  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you 
had  a^Jced  whether  I  did  not  think.  Cic.  Ut  honore  dignus  essem  laboravl, 
I  strove  to  be  worthy  of  honor.  Cic. 

492.  In  accordance  with  this  rule,  the  Subjunctive  dependent  upon 
a  principal  tense,^  present,  future,  future  perfect,  is  put— 

1.  In  the  Present,  to  denote  incomplete  action: 

Quaeritur  cur  dissentiant,  the  question  is  ashed  ivhy  they  disagree.  Cic. 
Nemo  erit  qui  censeat,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  thinh.  Cic. 

NoTE.-Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  action  denoted  by  the  Subjunctive  belongs 
either  to  the  present  time  or  to  i\ie  future. 

2.  In  the  Perfect,  to  denote  completed  action : 

Quacramus  quae  vitia  fuerint,  let  us  inquire  what  faults  there  were.  Cic. 
Kogitabit  me  ubi  fuerim,  he  will  ash  me  where  I  have  heeu.   Ter. 

NOTO  l.-In  the  sequence  of  tenses,  the  Perfect  is  occasionally  treated  as  a  prin^ 

Cfpaltense:^ 

Ohlltns  ea  quid  dixQTim,  you  haveforgotten  what  I smd.K.ic. 

NoTB  2.-For  further  illustrations  of  them^^mceqfienses,  see  493,  2,  noie^ 

■"Vi^helv^s^^ubji^ve^^ral^  ^^^  P^^'^P^^ 

verb.    Accordingly,  mncat  depending  upon  the  present,  nltitur,  denotes  present  time, 
while  censeat  depending  upon  the  future,  erit,  denotes  future  ^'^^' 
a  For  the  treatment  of  the  Perfect  in  the  sequence  of  tenses,  see  495. 


270 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES, 


493.  The  Subjunctive  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  imperfect^ 
historical  perfect^  pluperfect,  is  put — 

1.  In  the  Imperfect,  to  denote  incomplete  action : 

Timebam  ne  evenirent  ea,  I  icas  fearing  that  those  things  would  take  place 
(i.  e.,  at  some  future  time).  Cic.  Quaesieras  nonne  putarem,  you  had  in- 
quired whether  I  did  not  think  (i.  e.,  at  that  time).  Cic. 

Note.— Observe  that  in  these  examples  the  time  of  the  action  denoted  by  the  Sub- 
junctive is  either  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb  or  subsequent  to  it. 

2.  In  the  Pluperfect,  to  denote  completed  action : 

Themistocles,  cum  Graeciam  liberasset,  expulsus  est,  Themisiocles  was 
banished,  though  he  had  liberated  Greece,  Cic. 

KoTE  1.— The  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  like  the  Perfect  after  a  principal 
tense,  may  represent  the  action  as  completed  in  future  time ;  see  496,  II. 
*  Note  2.— The  sequence  of  tenses  may  be  further  illustrated  as  follows  :  * 


Nescit  quid  facias, 
Nesciet  quid  facias, 
Nesclverit  quid  facias, 
Nescit  quid  fecerls, 
Nesciet  quid  feceris, 
Nesciverit  quid  feceris, 
Nesciebat  quid  faceres, 
Nesclvit  quid  faceres, 
Nesciverat  quid  faceres, 
Nesciebat  quid  fecisses, 
Nescivit  quid  fBcisses, 
Nesciverat  quid  fecissGs, 


He  knoics  not  what  you  are  doing. 

lie  will  not  know  what  you  will  do.'^ 

lie  will  not  hate  known  what  you  will  do. 

He  knows  not  what  you  have  done^  or  what  youdid.^ 

He  will  not  know  what  you  will  have  done.* 

He  will  not  have  known  what  you  iciU  have  done. 

He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing. ^ 

He  did  not  know  what  you  were  doing. ^ 

He  had  not  knoicn  what  you  tcere  doing. 

He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

He  did  not  know  what  you  had  done. 

He  had  not  known  what  you  had  done. 

494.  The  periphrastic  forms  in  rua  and  dus  conform  to  the  general 
rule  for  the  sequence  of  tenses : 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  how  long  life  will 
continue,  Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent,  «^  was  uncertain 
whither  they  would  send  the  fleet.   Liv. 

495.  Peculiarities  in  Sequence. — The  following  peculiarities 
in  the  sequence  of  tenses  deserve  notice  : 

I.  In  the  sequence  of  tenses  the  Latin  Perfect  is  generally  treated  as 
an  historical  tense,  even  when  rendered  with  have,  and  thus  admits  the 
Imperfect  or  Pluperfect : 

Quoniam  quae  subsidia  habere»  exposui,«  nunc  dicam,  since  I  have  shown 

1  It  is  not  intended  to  grive  all  the  possible  meanings  of  the  Subjunctive  clauses  hero 
used,  but  simply  to  illustrate  the  sequence  of  tenses. 

2  Or,  he  will  not  know  what  you  are  doing.  Thus,  quid  facida  may  represent  the 
direct  question,  quid  fades,  'what  shall  you  do?'  or  quid  facts,  'what  are  you  doing?' 

3  Or,  what  you  were  doing. 

*  Or,  what  you  have  done^  or  what  you  did. 

*  Or,  what  you  would  do.    Nesclvit  may  sometimes  be  rendered,  he  has  not  knorcn. 
«  Exposui,  though  best  rendered  by  our  Perfect  Definite  with  have,  is  in  the  Latin 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES, 


271 


ivhat  aids  you  loave,  I  will  now  speak,  Cic.    Haec  non  ut  vos  excitarera  locu- 
tus  sum,  I  have  not  spoken  this  to  arouse  (that  I  might  arouse)  you,  Cic. 
Note.— For  the  Perfect  as  &  principal  tense,  see  493,  2,  note  1. 

II.  The  Historical  Present  (467,  III.)  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical 
tense,  but  sometimes  as  a  principal  tense : 

Persuadet  Castico  ut  regnum  occuparet,  he  persuaded  Casticus  to  seize  the 
government,  Caes.  Ubil  Orant  ut  sibi  parcat,  the  Ubii  implore  him  to  spare 
them,  Caes. 

Note.— The  Historical  Present  includes  the  Present  used  of  authors  (467,  8),  the 
Present  with  dum  (467,  4),  the  Historical  Infinitive  (536, 1),  etc. : 

Chrysippus  disputat  Aethera  esse  eum  quern  homines  Jovem  appellarent,  Chrysippus 
contends  that  he  whom  men  call  Jupiter  is  Aether.  Cic. 

III.  The  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  even  when  it  refers  to  present  time,  as 
in  conditional  sentences,  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  though- 
sometimes  as  a  prin/iipal  tense : 

Nisi  ineptum  putarem,  jurarem  me  ea  sentire  quae  dicerem,  if  I  did  not 
think  it  improper,  I  would  take  an  oath  that  I  believe  those  things  which  I  say. 
Cic.  Memorare  possem  quibus  in  locis  hostes  populus  Romanus  fuderit,  / 
might  state  in  what  places  the  Boman people  routed  the  enemy.   Sail. 

IV.  The  Perfect  Infinitive  is  generally  treated  as  an  historical  tense,  but 
the  Present  and  the  Future  Infinitive,  the  Present  and  the  Future  Participle, 
as  also  Geininds  and  Supines,  share  the  tense  of  the  verb  on  which  they 
depend,  as  they  express  only  relative  time  (537,  550) : 

Satis  vidcor  docuisse,  hominis  natura  quanto  antelret  animantes,  I  think  I 
have  sufficiently  shown  hoio  much  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  that  of  the  other 
animals  (lit.,  surpassed  animals),  Cic.  Spero  fore  i  ut  contingat,  I  hope  it  will 
happen,  Cic.  Non  speraverat  fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  he  had  not  hoped  that 
they  would  revolt  to  him,  Liv.  Mlserunt  Delphos  consultum  quidnam  face- 
rent,  they  sent  to  Delphi  to  ask  what  they  should  do.   Nep. 

V.  Clauses  containing  a  general  truth  usually  conform  to  the  law  for 
the  sequence  of  tenses,  at  variance  with  the  English  idiom : 

Quanta  conscientiae  vis  esset,  ostendit,  he  showed  how  great  is  the  power  of 
conscience,  Cic. 

VI.  Clauses  denoting  consequence  or  result  generally  express  absolute 
time,  and  are  thus  independent  of  the  law  of  sequence.^  They  thus  admit 
the  Present  or  Perfect  after  historical  tenses : 

Epaminondas  fide  sic  usus  est,  ut  possit  judicarl,*  Epaminondas  used  such 

treated  as  the  Historical  Perfect.    The  thought  is  as  follows :  Since  in  the  iyreceding 
topics  I  set  forth  the  aids  which  you  have,  I  will  now  speak.,  etc. 

1  Literally,  I  hope  it  icill  he  that  it  may  happen.  Here /ore  shares  the  tense  of 
sperd^  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Present,  contingat ;  but  below  it  shares  the 
tense  of  speraverat^  and  is  accordingly  followed  by  the  Imperfect,  deficeretxt. 

2  This  peculiarity  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  result  of  a  past  action  may  itself  be 


273 


SEQUENCE  OF  TENSES. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE. 


273 


fidelity  tliat  it  may  le  judged.  Nep.  Adeo  excel! r bat  Aristides  abstinentia, 
ut  Justus  sit  appellutus,  Aristides  so  excelled  in  self-control.^  that  he  has  been 
called  the  Just,   Nep. 

VII.  For  the  sequence  of  tenses  in  the  indirect  discourse,  see  525. 

496.  Future  Time  in  the  Subjunctive. — When  the  Future  is  used  in 
the  principal  clause,  the  Future  and  Future  Perfect  tenses,  wanting  in  the 
Latin  Subjunctive,  are  supplied  in  the  subordinate  clauses  as  follows : 

I.  The  Future  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the  Present, 
and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  Imperfect  : 

Omnia  sic  agentur  ut  bellum  sCdetur,!  all  things  shall  be  so  managed  that 
the  war  will  be  brought  to  a  close.  Cic.  Loquebantur,  etiara  cum  vellet  ^  Caesar, 
sCse  non  esse  pugnaturos,  they  were  saying  that  they  would  not  fight  even  ivhen 
Caesar  should  wish  it.   Cae&. 

II.  The  Future  Perfect  is  supplied — (1)  after  a  principal  tense  by  the 
Perfect,  and  (2)  after  an  historical  tense  by  the  Plupp:rfect  : 

Respondet  si  id  sit  factum,  se  nociturum  nGminI,  he  replies  that  if  this 
should  be  done  (shall  have  been  done)  he  will  harm  no  one.  Caes.  Apparebat 
rcgnaturum,  qui  vicisset,  it  was  evident  that  he  would  be  king  who  should  con- 
quer, Liv. 

Note  1.— The  Fidxire  and  the  Future  Perfect  tenses  are  often  supplied  In  the  same 
way,  even  when  the  Future  does  not  occur  in  the  principal  clause,  provided  the  idea  of 
future  time  can  be  easily  inferred  from  the  context : 

Yereor  ne  laborem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor.  Cic.  Quid  dios 
ferat  incertum  es>i.,what  a  day  will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quid  hostes  con- 
silii  caperent,  exspectabant,  they  waited  to  see  what  plan  the  enemy  would  adopt. 
Caes.    DC'litui,  dum  vela  dedissent,  I  hid  myself  until  they  should  have  set  sail.  Verg-. 

Note  2. — When  the  idea  of  future  time  must  be  especially  emphasized  in  the  sub- 
ordinate clause,  the  periphrastic  forms  in  rus  are  used  :  ^ 

Incertum  est  quam  longa  vita  futura  sit,  it  is  uncertain  hoic  long  life  will  continue, 
Cic.  Incertum  erat  quo  missuri  classem  forent,  it  was  uncertain  whither  they  would 
send  the  fleet.  Liv. 

Note  8. — The  Future  Perfect  is  eometimes  supplied  in  the  Passive  "by  futurus  shn 
&Vidfuturus  essem  with  the  Perfect  Participle :  ^ 

Ndn  dubito  quin  confecta  jam  res  futura  sit,  I  do  not  doubt  that  the  thing  will  have 
been  already  accomplished.  Cic. 

present.,  and  may  thus  be  expressed  by  a  principal  tense.  When  the  result  belongs  to 
the  present  time,  the  Present  is  used:  possit  jUdicarl^  'may  be  judged  now';  when  it 
is  represented  as  completed,  the  Perfect  is  used  :  sit  appelldtus^  *has  been  called'  (i.  e., 
even  to  the  present  day);  but  when  it  is  represented  as  simultaneous  with  the  action 
on  which  it  depends,  the  Imperfect  is  used  in  accordance  with  the  general  rule  (491). 

1  Sedetur^  referring  to  the  same  time  as  agentur^  and  vellet,  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  esse  pilgndturos^  both  denote  future  time. 

2  Other  traditional  periphrastic  forms,  rarely  used  in  either  voice,  are— for  the  Fr- 
TTjnv.,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Present  Subjunctive,  and  futurum  esset  ut  with  the  Im- 
perfect; and  for  the  Future  Perfect,  futurum  sit  ut  with  the  Perfect,  &ud  futiiruni 
esset  ut  with  the  Pluperfect 


k 


II.  Subjunctive  in  Clauses  of  Purpose. 
RUIiE  XliH.— Purpose. 

497.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Purpose  :  * 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 

Missi  sunt  qui  (=4^  ii)  consulerent  Apollinem,  they  loere  sent  to  consult 
Apollo  (who  should,-NO?'  that  they  should).  Nep.  Missi  sunt  delect!  qui 
Thermopylas  occupcigfent,  picked  men  were  sent  to  take  possession  of  Ther- 
mopylae. Nep.  Doraum,  ubi  habitaret,  legit,  he  selected  a  house  where  he 
might  dwell  (that  he  might  dwell  in  it).  Cic.  Locum  petit,  unde  {=iut 
inde)  hostem  invadat,  he  seeks  a  position  from  which  he  may  (that  from  it 
he  may)  attack  the  enemy.   Liv. 

IL  With  ut,  ne,  quo,  quominus : 

Emtitur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Piinit  ne  peecctur^ 
he  punishes  that  crime  may  not  be  committed.  Sen.  Legum  idcirco  servl 
sumus,  ut  liberi  esse  possimus,  we  are  servants  of  the  law  for  this  reason^ 
that  we  may  he  free.  Cic.  Medico  dare  quo  sit  studiosior,  to  give  to  the  phy- 
sician, that  (by  this  means)  he  may  he  more  attentive,  Cic.  Non  reciisavit 
quominus  poenam  subiret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  submit  to  pu7iishment.  Nep. 

1.  Ut  or  uti  and  ne  are  the  usual  conjunctions  in  clauses  denoting  purpose. 
A  correlative,  ideo,  idcirco,  eo,  etc.,  sometimes  precedes,  as  in  the  third  ex- 
ample under  II. 

Note.— "With  a  connective  n^  hecomes  neve,  neu,  rarely  neque;  see  483,  8 : 
Legem  tuht  ne  quis  accusaretur  neve  multaretur,  he  proposed  a  law  that  no  one 
should  be  accused  or  punished.  Nep. 

2.  Qu^,  '  by  which,'  *  that,'  is  sometimes  used  in  clauses  denoting  purpose, 
especially  with  comparatives,  as  in  the  fourth  example  under  II.  Quominus, 
*  by  which  the  less,'  '  that  thus  the  less,'  '  that  not,'  is  simply  qud  with  the 
comparative  minus.  It  is  sometimes  used  after  verbs  of  hindering,  opposing, 
and  the  like,  as  in  the  last  example  under  II. 

Note. — Quo  setius  also  occurs  in  the  sense  of  quominus;  see  Cic.  Inv.,  II.,  45. 

498.  Clauses  of  Purpose  readily  pass  into   Object  Clauses,'^ 


1  The  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  express- 
ing the  desire  or  command  implied  in  the  action  of  the  principal  verb :  Te  rogo  ut  eum 
juvcs,  /  ask  you  to  aid  him  (I  ask  you,  so  aid  him).  Here  the  second  clause,  originally 
independent,  contains  the  desire,  wish,  involved  in  rogO.  Vereor  ne  laborem  augeam, 
I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor  (I  fear,  let  me  not  increase  the  labor).  Praesto 
erit  pontifex,  qui  comitia  habeat,  the  pontiff  tcill  be  present  to  hold  the  comitia  (the 
pontiff  will  be  present,  let  him  hold  the  comitia).  Liv.  See  Delbrlick, '  Conjunctiv  und 
Optativ,'  pp.  59-62. 

2  An  Object  Clause  is  one  which  has  become  virtually  the  object  of  a  verb.    Thus,  in 
*-optO  ut  id  audidtis^  the  clause  ut  id  audidtis  has  become  the  object  of  opto,  '  I  desire.' 


274 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE, 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE, 


275 


but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.     Thus  the  Subjunctive  is 
used — 

I.  With  verbs  signifying  Desire  and  its  Expression;  hence  decision^ 
decree^  etc. :  ^  ^ 

Opto  ut  id  audiatis,  I  desire  (pray)  that  you  may  Tiear  this,  Cic.  Ut  mihl 
aedes  aliquas  conducas  volo,  I  wish  that  you  would  hire  a  ho  use  for  me.  Plant. 
y  Seuatus  censuerat,  uti  Aeduos  dofenderet,  the  senate  had  decreed  that  he  should 
defend  the  Aedui.  Caes.  Servis  imperat  ut  f iliam  defendant,  he  commands 
his  servants  to  defend  his  daughter.  CiQt^Q  hortor  ut  legas,  lexJiort  you  to 
read.  Cic./^e  rogo  ut  eum  juves,  /  ask  you  to  aid  him.  Cic.  A  rege  peti- 
verunt  ne  inimlcissimum  suum  secum  haberet,  they  asked  from  the  king  that 
he  would  not  keep  his  worst  enemy  with  him,   Nep. 

Note.— Verbs  of  detekmining,  deciding— «/a^i/^J,  crnsHtuO,  decemo,  etc.— generally 
take  the  Subjunctive  when  a  new  subject  is  introduced,  otherwise  the  InjinUive  (633, 

Constituerat,  ut  tribunus  quererotur,  hehad  arranged  that  the  tribune  should  enter 
the  complaint.  Sail.  Senatus  decrcvit,  darent  opcram  cOnsules,  th>e  senate  decreed  that 
the  consuls  should  attend  to  it.  Sail.    Manere  decrcvit,  he  decided  to  remain.  Nep. 

II.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  Effort  {striving  for  a  pur- 
pose, attainiyig  a  purpose)  or  Impulse  {urging  to  effort) :  ^ 

Contendit  ut  vincat,  7ie  strives  to  conquer.  Cicy^Curavi  ut  bene  viverem, 
I  took  care  to  lead  a  go^^dJi^^Sen.  'Effecit  ut  imperutor  mitteretur,  he  caused 
a  commander  to  be  sent  (attained  his  purpose).  Nep.  '^lovemur  ut  boni 
simus,  we  are  influenced  to  be  good.   Cic. 

Note  1.— Some  verbs  of  endeavoring,  btrivino,  as  cdnor.,  contendo,  nltor,  studeO, 
and  te?ito,  generally  take  the  Infinitive  when  no  new  subject  is  introduced ;  see  533  : 

Locum  oppugnare  contendit,  7ie  proceeds  to  storm  the  city.  Caes.  Tentabo  de  hoc 
dicere,  I  will  attempt  to  speak  of  this.  Quint. 

Note  2.—  m  with  the  Subjunctive  sometimes  forms  with  facio  or  ago,  rarely  with  est, 
a  circumlocution  for  the  Indicative  :  facio  ut  dlcam  =  dico ;  faciO  ut  scribam  =  scribO : 

In  Vitus  facio  ut  recorder,  I  unwillingly  recall.  Cic. 

III.  With  verbs  and  expressions  denoting  Fear,  Anxiety,  Danger  :  ^ 
^  Timeo,  ut  labores  sustineas,  I  fear  that  you  will  not  endure  the  labors.^ 

Cic.  Timebam  ne  evenirent  ea,  I  feared  that  those  things  would  happen,  Cic. 
Vereor  ne  laborem  augeam,  I  fear  that  I  shall  increase  the  labor. ^  Cic.  Pericu- 
lum  est  nc  ille  te  verbis  obruat,  there  is  danger  that  he  will  overwhelm  you 
with  words.    Cic. 

Note  1.— By  a  difference  of  idiom,  ut  must  here  be  rendered  by  that  not,  and  ne  by 
that  or  lest.    The  Latin  treats  the  clause  as  a  wish  or  purpose.* 

»  As  opt^,  postulD;  censeo,  decemo,  statuO,  constitico,  etc.;  void,  mdlo;  admoned, 
moneo,  hortor  ;  oro,  rogO  ;  imperO,  praecipio,  etc. 

2  As  mUor,  contendo,  studeO;  curO,  id  ago,  operam  do,  etc.;  faciO,  efficio,  im- 
pefro,  cmmequor,  etc. ;  cogo,  impello,  moveo,  etc. 

3  As  metuf),  timen,  vereor;  perlculum  est,  cura  est,  etc. 
*  The  Subjunctive  of  Desire  is  manifest  if  we  make  the  subordinate  clause  indo- 


h 


Note  2.— After  verbs  of  fearing,  ne  non  is  sometimes  used  for  t^^— regularly  so  after 
negative  clauses : 

Vereor  ne  non  possit,  I  fear  that  he  will  not  be  able.  Cic, 

Note  3.— Verbs  of  fearing  admit  the  Infinitive  in  the  same  sense  as  in  English : 

Vereor  laudare,  I  fear  (hesitate)  to  praise.^  Cic, 

499.  Peculiakities. — Expressions  of  Purpose  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities  : 

1.  Ut  ne,  rarely  ut  non,  is  sometimes  used  for  ne : 

Praedixit,  ut  ne  legates  dimittcrcnt,  he  charged  them  not  to  (that  they 
should  not)  release  the  delegates.  Nep.  Ut  plura  non  dicara,  not  to  say  more 
(i.  6.,  that  I  may  not).   Cic. 

2.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted,  especially  after  volb^  nolo,  malo,  fado^  and 
after  verbs  of  directing,  urging,  etc.     Ne  is  often  omitted  after  cavl: 

Tu  velim  sis,  I  desire  that  you  may  be.  Cic.  Fac  habeas,  see  (make)  that 
you  have,  Cic.  Senatus  decrevit  darent  operam  consules,  the  senate  decreed 
that  the  consuls  should  see  to  it.  Sail.  Cave  facias,  beware  of  doing  it.^  or  see 
that  you  do  not  do  it,   Cic. 

Note.— Clauses  with  ut  or  nc  are  sometimes  inserted  parenthetically  in  sentences : 
Amicos,  optimam  vltae,  ut  ita  dicam,^  6uppellecti]em,/reencZ«,  the  best  treasure  (furni- 
ture), so  to  speak,  of  life.  Cic. 

3.  Clauses  of  Purpose  sometimes  pass  into  Substojidve  Clauses,  which, 
like  indeclinable  nouns,  are  used  in  a  variety  of  constructions  : 

Per  eum  stetit  quominus  dimicaretur,^  it  was  owing  to  him  (stood  through 
him)  that  the  battle  was  not  fought.  Caes.  Vol5  ut  mihl  respondeas,^  I  wish 
that  you  would  answer  me.  Cic.  Fecit  pacem  his  condicionibus,  ne  qui  ad- 
ficerentur  exsilio,^  he  made  peace  on  these  terms,  that  none  should  be  punished 
with  exile.   Nep. 

Note  l.~For  the  Different  Forms  of  Substantive  Clauses,  see  540. 

Note  2.— Clauses  with  quominus  sometimes  lose  the  original  idea  of  Purpose  and 
denote  Result :  * 

Non  dcterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  rCi  publicae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter 
a  wide  man  from  deliberating  for  the  republic,  Cic. 


pendent,  as  it  was  originally :  I  fear,  so  may  you  endure  the  labors,  an  affirmative  wish ; 
I  fear,  may  I  not  increase  the  labor,  a  negative  wish;  hence  n^. 

1  Compare  vereor  laudare,  '  I  fear  to  praise,'  with  vereor  tie  laudem, '  I  fbar  that 
I  shall  praise.' 

2  The  Subjunctive  in  this  and  similar  clauses  may  be  explained  either  as  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Purpose  dependent  upon  a  verb  understood,  or  as  a  Subjunctive  of  Desire;  see 
483. 

3  In  the  first  example,  the  clause  qu^mimi^  dlmicaretur  has  become  apparently  the 
subject  of  stetit;  in  the  second,  ut  ndhl  respondeds,  the  object  of  void;  and  in  the  third, 
ne  qui  adficerentur  exsilio,  an  appositive  to  condicionibus. 

*  Such  a  transition  from  Purpose,  denoting  an  Intended  Besult,  to  a  Simple  Result 
is  easy  and  natural. 


/ 


Vs 


276 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT. 


277 


M 


III.    SUBJUNCTITE   IN   CLAUSES   OF   RESULT. 

RULE  XUII.— Result. 

600.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Result* — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubl,  unde,  cur, 
etc.  : 

N5n  is  sum  qui  (=  vt  ecjo)  his  utar^  I  am  not  svch  a  one  as  to  use  these 
things.  Cic.  Innocentia  est  adfectio  talis  animl,  quae  (=  vt  ea)  noceat  nemini, 
innocence  is  such  a  state  of  mind  as  injures  no  one,  or  as  to  injure  no  one.  Cic. 
Neque  quisquam  fuit  ubi  nostrum  jus  obtinertmus,  nor  was  there  any  one 
with  whom  (where)  we  cotild  obtain  our  right.  Cic.  Est  vero  cur  quis  Juno- 
nem  laedere  nolit,  there  is  indeed  a  reason  why  (so  that)  one  ivould  be  unwill- 
ing to  offend  Juno.    Ovid. 

II.  With  ut,  ut  non,  quin  : 

Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  curissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  was  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians.  Nep.  Ita  laudo,  ut  non  pertimBscam,  I  so  praise  as  not 
TO  FEAR.  Cic.  Ego  in  publicis  causis  ita  sum  versatus  ut  defenderim  multos, 
I  have  been  so  occupied  in  public  suits  that  I  have  defended  many.  Cic.  Nihil 
est  tarn  difficile  quIn  {ut  non)  investlgarl  possit,  nothing  is  so  difficult  that  it 
may  not  be  investigated.    Ter. 

Note  'i.—Qul  is  often  preceded  by  is,  talis.,  tantus,  or  some  similar  word;  and  ut, 
by  ita,  sic,  tarn,  adeo,  tantopere,  or  some  similar  particle;  see  examples. 
Note  2. — In  Plantns  and  Terence  ut  sometimes  accompanies  qui : 
Ita  ut  qui  neget,  so  that  he  refuses.  Ter. 
Note  8.-— For  the  Subjunctive  denoting  a  result  after  qu^ominus,  see  499,  8,  note  2. 

501.  Clauses  of  Result  readily  pass  into  Substantive  Clauses^ 
but  they  still  retain  the  Subjunctive.  Thus  the  Subjunctive  is  used — 
I.  In  Subject  Clauses.     Thus — 

1.  With  impersonal  verbs  signifying  it  happens^  remains^  folloivSy  is  laio- 
ful,  is  allowed,  is  distant,  is,  etc. :  ^ 

Fit  ut  quisque  delectetur,  it  happens  that  every  one  is  delighted.  Cic. 
Sequitur  ut  ftilsum  sit,  it  follows  that  it  is  false.  Cic.  Restat  ut  doceam,  it 
remains  that  I  should  show.  Cic.  Ex  quO  efficitur  ut  voluptSs  non  sit  sum- 
mum  honum,  from  which  it  follows  that  pleasure  is  not  the  highest  good.   Cic. 

2.  With  predicate  nouns  and  adjectives : 

M6s  est  ut  nOlint,  it  is  their  custom  not  to  be  ivilling  (that  they  are  un- 
willing). Cic.  Vrbx\vciVLmQ^t,\xtdoQ^£iin,  the  next  point  is,  that  1  show.  Cic. 
Non  est  dubium  quin  beneficium  sit,  that  it  is  a  benefit,  is  not  doubtful.   Sen. 

1  The  Subjunctive  of  Result  is  doubtless  in  origin  a  Potential  Subjunctive  :  Non  is 
sum  qui  his  utar,  *  I  am  not  one  who  icould  use  (or  is  likely  to  use)  these  things.' 
Hence  this  Subjunctive  takes  the  negative  non  {ut  non)  like  the  Potential  Subjunctive, 
while  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose  takes  the  negative  ne  like  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire. 

2  As  accidit,  contingit,  evenit,Jit,  restat,  sequitur,  licet,  abest,  est,  etc. 


Note. — For  the  Subjunctive  with  ut,  with  or  without  ne,  in  questions  expressive  of 
impatience  or  surprise,  see  486,  II.,  note. 

II.  In  Object  Clauses.     Thus — 

1.  In  clauses  hitrodux^cd  by  ut  after  facio,  efficiO,  of  the  action  of  irra- 
tional forces : 

Sol  efficit  ut  omnia  floreant,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom  (i.  e.,  pro- 
duces that  result).  Cic.  Splendor  vester  facit  ut  peccare  sine  periculo  non 
possitis,  your  conspicuous  position  causes  this  result,  that  you  can  not  err  with- 
out peril.    Cic.     See  498,  II. 

2.  In  clauses  introduced  by  quin  after  verbs  of  Doubting  : 

Non  dubitabis  quin  sint  beati,  you  will  not  doubt  that  they  are  happy.  Cic. 

III.  In  Clauses  in  Apposition  with  nouns  or  pronouns : 

Habet  hoc  virtus  ut  delectet,  virtue  has  this  advantage,  that  it  delights. 
Cic.  Est  hoc  vitium,  ut  invidia  gloriae  comes  sit,  there  is  this  fault,  that  envy 
is  the  companion  of  glory.    Nep.  I 

Note. — For  the  different  forms  of  substantive  clauses,  see  640. 

602.  PECLT.IARITIES. — Expres^ons  of  Result  present  the  fol- 
lowing peculiarities : 


\ 


1.  Ut  is  sometimes  omitted — regularly  with  oportct,  generally  with  opus 
est  and  nccesse  est :  \ 

Te  oportet  virtus  trahat,  it  is  necessary  fhaV^irtue  should  attract  you.  Cic. 
Causam  habeat  necesse  est,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  have  a  cause,   Cic. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  occurs  with  quam — with  or  without  ut : 

Liberalius  quam  ut  posset,  too  freely  to  be  able  (more  freely  than  so  as  to 
be  able).  Nep.  Imponebat  amplius  quam  ferre  possent,  he  imposed  more 
than  they  were  able  to  bear. 

3.  After  tantmn  abest  ut,  denoting  result,  a  second  ut  of  result  some- 
times occurs : 

Philosophia,  tantum  abest  ut  laudetur,  ut  etiam  vituperetur,  so  far  is  it 
•^rom  the  truth  (so  much  is  wanting)  that  philosophy  is  praised^  that  it  is  even 
censured.   Cic. 

503.  In  Relative  Clauses,  the  Subjunctive  of  Result 
shows  the  following  Special  Constructions  : 

I.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses  to  characterize  an 

Indefinite  or  General  Antecedent :  * 

Quid  est  quod  te  delectare  possit,  what  is  there  which  can  delight  you  ? 
Cic.  Nunc  dicis  aliquid  quod  ad  rem  pertineat,  now  you  state  something  which 
belongs  to  the  subject.  Cic.  Sunt  qui  putent,  there  are  some  who  think.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  qui  non  cupiat,  there  is  no  one  who  does  not  desire.   Cic. 

1  Here  tarn,  talis,  or  some  such  word,  is  often  understood. 


l»ianW"^iw.%L'-r-,:-°^4^-^-.^-  ---  _.-.._-;_ 


278 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT, 


!i 


SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT 


Note  1.— Restrictive  clauses  with  quod^  as  qiiod  sciam^  'as  far  as  I  know,"  quod 
meminerim,  'as  far  as  I  remember,"  etc.,  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Non  ego  te,  quod  sciam^  unquam  ante  hunc  diem  vidi,  as  tab  as  I  know,  /  Jiave 
never  seen  you  before  this  day.  Plaut. 

Note  2. — Quod.,  or  a  relative  particle,  uhJ^  unde^  quo^  cur^  etc.,  with  the  Subjunctive^ 
is  used  after  esty  '  there  is  reason ' ;  non  est,  nihil  est,  '  there  is  no  reason  ^ ;  quid  est^  '  what 
reason  is  there  ? '  non  habeo^  nihil  habeO^  '  I  have  no  reason ' : 

Est  quod  f^audeas,  there  is  reason  why  you  should  rejoice^  or  so  that  you  may. 
Plaut.  Non  est  quod  credas,  there  is  no  reason  why  you  should  believe.  Sen.  Nihil 
habe5,  quod  incusem  senectutem,  /  ha/ce  no  reason  why  I  should  accuse  old  age.  Cic. 
Quid  est  cur  virtus  ipsa  non  efficiat  beatos,  what  reason  is  there  why  virtue  itself 
should  not  make  men  happy  f  Cic. 

Note  3.— The  Indicative  is  freely  used  in  relative  clauses  after  indefinite  antecedents : 

1)  In  poetry  ^  and  late  prose : 

Sunt  quos  juvat,  there  are  some  ichom  it  delights.  Hor. 

2)  Even  in  the  best  prose,  when  the  fact  itself  is  to  be  made  prominent: 

Sunt  qui  non  audent  dJcere,  there  are  some  who  do  not  dare  to  speak.  Cic.  Multa 
sunt,  quae  dici  possunt,  t/iere  are  many  things  which  may  be  said.  Cic. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  in  relative  clauses — 

1.  After  iinus,  solus,  and  the  like  : 

Sapientia  est  una,  quae  maestitiam  pellat,  ivisdom  is  the  only  thing  which 
dispels  sadness  (which  would  dispel).  Cic.  Soli  centum  erant  qui  creari  pos- 
sent,  there  were  only  one  hundred  wlio  could  he  appointed  (such  that  they  could 
be).   Liv. 

2.  After  dlgnus,  indlgnus,  idoneus,  and  aptus: 

Ffibulae  dignae  sunt,  quae  legantur,  the  fables  are  worthy  to  he  read  (that 
they  should  be  read).  Cic.  Rufum  Caesar  idoneum  judicaverat  quern  mit- 
teret,  Caesar  had  judged  Eiifus  a  suitable  person  to  send  (whom  he  might 
send).   Caes. 

3.  After  comparatives  with  quam : 

Damna  miijora  sunt  quam  quae  {=ut  ea)  acstimari  possint,  the  losses  are 
too  great  to  he  estimated  (greater  than  so  that  they  can  be).   Liv. 

504.  Quln,^  ^who  not/  ^tliat  not/  etc.,  is  often  used 
to  introduce  a  result  after  negatives  and  interrogatives 
implying  a  negative/    Thus — 


1  Especially  in  early  poetry,  as  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 

2  Qiiln  is  a  compound  of  the  relative  qui  and  ne,  and  appears  to  be  used  both  as  an 
indeclinable  relative  pronoun,  who  not,  and  as  a  relative  particle,  by  which  not,,  how  not^ 
etc.  Some  clauses  with  quln  may  perhaps  be  best  explained  as  indirect  questions 
(539, 1.).  Quln,,  meaning  why  not?  often  used  in  independent  clauses,  is  a  compound 
of  the  interrogative  quis  or  qui,,  and  ne :  Quln  til  hoc  facts., '  why  do  you  not  do  it  ? '  Liv. 

3  As  nemo,,  nullus^  nihil,,  quis  t  non  duhito,,  non  dubium  est ;  non  multum  abest,, 
paulum  abest.,  nihil  abest.,  quid  abest  t  non,,  vix,,  aegre  abstineO;  mihi  non  temperO; 
non  retlneor;  non,,  nihil  praetermitto  ;  facere  non  possum,,  fUrl  non  potest;  nun- 
quam,  with  a  large  class  of  verbs. 


279 


1.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  sense  of  qui  non,,  quae  non^  etc.,  as 
after  nemd^  nUllus,  nihil,  quis  ? 

Adest  nemo,  quln  videat,  there  is  no  one  present  who  does  not  see.  Cic. 
Nemo  est  quln  audierit,  there  is  no  one  who  has  not  heard.  Cic.  Quis  est 
quin  cernat,  who  is  there  who  does  not  perceive  ?  Cic.  Nulla  fuit  civitas  quln 
mitteret,  there  was  no  state  which  did  not  send.  Caes.  Nulla  pictura  fuit 
quln  (^—quam  non)  inspexerit,  there  was  no  painting  which  he  did  not  inspect. 
Cic.  Nullum  intermisi  diem,  quin  {=  quo  non  or  ut  eo  non)  aliquid  darera, 
I  allowed  no  day  to  pass  without  giving  something  (on  which  I  would  not  give 
something).   Cic. 

Note. — Quln  can  often  be  best  rendered  by  but  or  by  without  or  from  with  a  parti- 
cipial noun  in  -ing:  see  the  last  example  under  1;  also  the  last  under  2. 

2.  Quln  is  often  used  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  ut  non: 

Nemo  est  tarn  fortis  quin  perturbetur,  no  one  is  so  brave  as  not  to  he  dis- 
turbed.  Caes.     Nihil  est  tam  difficile  quin  investigari  possit,  nothing  is  so 
difficult  that  it  may  not  he  investigated.   Ter.     Eetineri  non  poterant  quin   I 
tela  coicerent,^  they  could  not  he  restrained  from  hurling  their  weapons.  Caes. 

Note. — Is  or  id  is  sometimes  expressed  after  quln: 
.  Nihil  est  quin  id  intereat,  there  is  nothing  ichich  does  not  perish.  Cic. 

3.  Quln  is  used  in  the  sense  of  ut  non  or  of  ut  in  subject  and 
object  clauses  (501)  :  ^;0 

1)  With  facere  non  possum.,  fieri  non  potest,,  etc.,  in  the  sense  of  ut  7imi:  ^ 

Facere  non  possum  quin  litteras  mittam,  /  ca?i  not  hut  send  a  letter.  Cic. 
Effici  non  potest  quin  eos  oderim,  it  can  not  he^  (be  effected)  that  I  should,  not 


hate  them.    Cic. 


y/}A- 


■u 


•^^ 


2)  With  negative  expressions  implying  doubt  and  uncertainty,  in  the 
sense  of  ut :  ,  .  //-'i 

Agamemnon  non  dubitat  quin  Troja  sit  peritiira,  Agamemnon  does  not 
douht  that  Troy  will  fall  (perish).  Cic.  Non  dubitari  debet  quin  fuerint 
poetae,  it  ought  not  to  he  doubted  that  there  were  poets.  Cic.  Quis  ignorat 
quin  tria  genera  sint,  who  is  ignorant  that  there  are  three  races  ?  Cic. 

4.    Quln  is  sometimes  used  in  the  sense  of  quominus:'^ 

Quin  loquar  haec,  nunquam  me  potes  deterrere,  you  can  never  deter  me 
from  saying  this.  Plaut.  Non  deterret  sapientem  mors  quominus  rei  publi- 
cae  consulat,  death  does  not  deter  a  wise  man  from  deliherating  for  the  repub- 
lic. Cic.  Non  recusavit,  quominus  poenam  subiret,  he  did  not  refuse  to  sub- 
mit to  pui^shment.  Nep.  Neque  recusare  quin  armis  contcndant,  and  thai 
they  do  not  refuse  to  contend  in  arms.    Caes. 

Note. — For  non  quln  in  Causal  Clauses,  see  516,  2. 

*  Pronounced  as  if  written  cdjicerent;  see  36,  4,  with  foot-note  1. 

'  As  after  verbs  of  hindering,  refusing,  and  the  like.  Observe  that  in  the  examples 
deferred  and  recusO  are  used  both  with  quln  and  with  quominus.  They  also  admit  the 
Subjunctive  with  ne  or  the  Infinitive;  see  505,  II. 


^, 


280 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


605.  Construction  of  Special  Verbs. — Some  verbs  admit 
two  or  more  different  constructions.     Thus — 

I.  Dubito  admits — 

1.  Quin,  WITH  THE  Subjunctive,  if  it  stands  in  a  negative  sentence; 
see  504,  3,  2). 

2.  An  Indirect  Question  (529,  L): 

Non  dubito  quid  putes,  /  do  not  doubt  what  yon  tJiink.  Cic.  DubitO  an 
ponam,  I  doubt  whether  I  should  not  place. ^  Nop. 

3.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  : 

Quis  dubitat  patera  Europam,  who  doubts  that  Europe  is  exposed?  Curt. 

4.  The  simple  Infinitive,  when  it  means  to  hesitate  : 

Non  dubitem  dicere,  I  should  not  hesitate  to  say,  Cic.  Dubitamus  virttitem 
extendere  factis,  do  ice  hesitate  to  extend  our  glory  (valor)  by  our  deeds?  Verg. 

II.  Verbs  of  hindering^  opposing^  refusing^  and  the  like,  admit — 

1.  The  Subjunctive  with  ne,  quin,  or  quSminus : ' 

Impedior  ne  plura  dicam,  1  am  prevented  from  saying  (that  I  may  not  say) 
more.  Cic.  Sententiam  ne  diceret  recusavit,  he  refused  to  give  an  opinion. 
Cic.  Neque  recusare  quin  armis  contendant,  and  that  they  do  not  refuse  to 
contend  in  arms.  Caes.  Intercludor  dolore  quomiuus  plura  scribam,  /  am, 
prevented  by  sorrow  from  writing  more.   Cic. 

2.  The  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive,  or  the  simple  Infinitive  : 

Num  Ignobilitas  sapientem  beatum  esse  prohibebit,  loill  obscurity  prevent 
a  wise  man  from  being  happy  .^  Cic.  Quae  faccro  reciisem,  which  1  should 
refuse  to  do.    Ilor. 

IV.  Moods  in  Conditional  Sentences. 

606.  Every  conditional  sentence  consists  of  two  distinct  parts, 
expressed  or  understood — the  Condition  and  the  Conclusi(m : 

Si  negem,  mentiar,  if  I  should  deny  it^  I  should  speak  falsely.^  Cic. 

RULE  XLiIV.— Conditional  Sentences  with  si»  nisi»  ni»  sin* 

507.  Conditional  sentences  witli  si^  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take — 
I.  The  Indicative  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  sup- 
posed ease :  • 

*  That  is,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that  I  should  place.  Observe  that  dubito  an 
means  'I  doubt  whether  not'='I  am  inclined  to  think,'  and  dubito  num^  'I  doubt 
whether' :  Dubito  num  debeam^  '  I  doubt  whether  I  ought'  Plin. 

2  For  the  use  of  quln^  see  504.  Ne  and  quominus  may  follow  either  affirmatives 
or  negatives. 

3  Here  si  negem  is  the  condition,  and  mentiar^  the  conclusion. 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


281 


Si  spTritum  ducit,  vTvit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive.  Cic.  Si  tot  exempla 
virtutis  non  movent,  nihil  unquam  movebit,  if  so  many  examples  of  valor 
do  not  move  (you\  nothing  will  ever  move  (you).   Liv. 

II.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both 
clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  a^ possible: 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  t/ie  day  icould  fa'd  me,  if  I 
should  wish  to  defend  the  cause.  Cic.  Improbe  feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you 
u'ould  do  wrong ^  if  you  should  not  give  warning.    Cic. 

III.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in 
both  clauses  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to 
fact: 

Pluribus  verbis  ad  te  scriberem,  si  res  verba  deslderaret,  I  should  write 
to  you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words.  Cic.  Si 
voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished^  he  would  have  fought.   Nep. 

1.  Two  clauses  without  any  conjunction  sometimes  have  the  force  of  a 
conditional  sentence : 

Negat  quis,  nego,  does  any  one  deny^  I  deny.  Tor.  Roges  me,  nihil  re- 
spondeam,  ask  me,  I  shall  make  no  reply.  Cic.  Tu  magnam  partem,  sineret 
dolor,  haberGs,  you  icould  have  had  a  large  share,  had  grief  permitted.^  Verg. 
Lacesse ;  jam  videbis  furentem,  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him),  you 
will  at  once  see  him  frantic.   Cic.^ 

2.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  the  relative  qui,  quae,  etc. 
=  sx  is,  SI  quis,  si  qui,  etc. : 

Qui  eecum  loqui  poterit,  sermonem  alterius  non  require t,  if  any  one  (lit., 
he  who)  shall  be  able  to  converse  with  himself,  he  will  not  need  the  conversation 

1  See  510,  note  2. 

2  From  these  examples  it  is  manifest  that  a  conditional  particle  is  not  an  essential  part 
of  a  conditional  sentence.  Originally  the  two  clauses,  the  condition  and  the  conclusion, 
were  independent,  and  the  mood  in  each  was  determined  by  the  ordinary  princijjles 
which  regulate  the  use  of  moods  in  principal  clauses;  see  483;  485.  Hence  the  Indica- 
tive was  used  in  treating  of  facts,  and  the  Subjunctive  or  Imperative  in  all  other  cases. 
Si,  probably  the  Locative  case  of  a  pronoun,  meaning-  (1)  at  that  time  or  in  that  manner, 
and  (2)  at  any  time  or  in  any  ma/n/ner,  has  nothing-  whatever  to  do  with  the  mood,  but 
merely  denotes  that  the  conclusion  is  connected  with  the  condition.  Thus  :  negat,  negO, 
*he  denies  (i.  e.,  assume  that  he  denies),  I  deny';  si  negat,  nego, 'he  denies  at  some 
time,  then  I  deny';  dies  defciat,  si  velim,  etc.,  'let  me  wish  (Subjunctive  of  Desire)  at 
any  time,  etc.,  then  the  day  would  fail  me.'  The  Subjunctive  in  conditions  is  a  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire  with  nearly  the  force  of  the  Imperative,  which  may  indeed  be  used  for  it 
when  si  is  omitted,  as  lacesse,  *  provoke  him  (i.  e.,  if  you  provoke  him).'  In  conclusions 
the  Subjunctive  is  generally  potential,  as  dies  defciat,  'the  day  would  fail,'  but  some- 
times it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,  for  which  the  Imperative  may  be  substituted ;  as, 
per  earn,  si  poterunt, '  may  I  perish  if  they  shall  be  able ' ;  si  peccdvl,  Ignosce,  *  if  1  have 
erred,  pardon  me.'    See  Delbruck,  *  Conjunctiv  und  Optativ,'  pp.  70-74;  171-182. 


282 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


of  another.  Cic.  Errat  longe,  qui  credat,  etc.,  Tie  greatly  errs  wTio  supposes^ 
etc.  (i.  e.,  if  any  one  supposes,  he  greatly  errs).  Ter.  Haec  qui  videat, 
nonne  cogatur  connterl,  etc.,  if  any  o?ie  should  see  these  things^  would  he  not 
be  compelled  to  admit ^  etc.  ?   Cic. 

3.  A  condition  is  sometimes  introduced  by  cum : 

Ea  cum  dixissent,  quid  responderes,  if  (when)  they  had  said  that^  what 
should  you  reply  f   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  condition  is  sometimes  ironical,  especially  with  nisi  tero^  nisi  forte^ 
with  the  Indicative,  and  with  quasi,  quasi  vero,  with  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive : 

Nisi  forte  insanit,  unless  perhaps  he  is  insane.  Cic.  Quasi  vero  necesse  sit,  as  if 
indeed  it  were  necessary,  Caes. 

Note  2.—Ita—8iy  '  so— if,'  means  only—if.  Si  quidem^ '  if  indeed,'  sometimes  has 
nearly  the  force  of  since : 

Hoc  ita  justum  est,  si  est  voluntarium,  this  is  just  only  if  (on  condition  that)  it  is 
'voluntary.  Cic.  Antlquissimum  est  genus  poutarum,  si  quid  em  Homerus  fuit  ante 
Romam  conditam,  the  class  of  poets  is  very  ancient^  since  Homer  lived  before  the 
founding  of  Borne.  Cic. 

Note  S.—Nisi  or  Til,  'if  not,'  is  sometimes  best  rendered  but  or  except: 

Nescio,  nisi  h6c  video,  I  know  not.,  but  (except  that)  I  observe  this.  Cic. 

Note  4.—Msi  si  means  except  if  unless  perhaps,  unless  : 

Nisi  si  qui  scrlpsit,  unless  some  one  has  written,  Cic. 

Note  6.— For  si  to  be  rendered  to  see  if  to  see  whether^  etc.,  see  539, 1,  note  1. 

Note  6. — For  quod  s?,  quod  nl,  quod  nisi.,  see  453,  6. 

Note  T.— The  condition  may  be  variously  supplied,  as  by  a  participle,  by  the  ablative 
absolute,  or  by  the  oblique  case  of  a  noun  : 

Non  potestis,  voluptate  omnia  dlrigentes  (=  si  dlrigiti.9\  rctinGre  virtntem,  you 
can  not  retain  your  manhood,  if  you  arrange  all  things  with  reference  to  pleasure. 
Cic.  Recto  facto  (  =  «X  recte  factum  erit),  laus  prdponitur,  if  it  is  (shall  be)  well  done, 
praise  is  offered.  Cic.  Nemd  sine  spo  (=  nisi  spem  habfret)  se  offerret  ad  mortem, 
no  one  without  a  hope  (if  he  had  not  a  hope)  would  expose  himself  to  death.  Cic. 

Note  8.— For  Conditional  Sentences  in  the  Indirect  Discourse,  see  537. 

508.  First  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  Li- 
dicative  in  both  clauses,  assuming  tlie  supposed  case  as  real, 
may  base  upon  it  any  statement  which  would  be  admissible 
if  the  supposed  case  were  a  known  fact : 

Si  haec  civitas  est,  civis  sum  ego,  if  this  is  a  state,  I  am  a  citizen,  Cic.  Si 
non  licebat,  non  necesse  erat,  if  it  was  not  laivful^  it  was  not  necessary,  Cic. 
Si  vis,  dabO  tib!  testes,  if  you  wish,  I  will  furnish  you  witnesses.  Cic.  Plura 
scrlbam,  si  plus  otii  liabuero,  /  will  write  more  if  I  shall  have  (shall  have 
had)  more  leisure.  Cic.  Dolorem  si  nOn  poterO  frangere,  occultabo,  if  I  shall 
not  be  able  to  overcome  sorrow,  I  shall  conceal  it.  Cic.  Parvl  sunt  forls  arma, 
nisi  est  consilium  domi,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  unless  there  is  wisdom 
at  home.  Cic.  Si  domi  sura,  etc. ;  sin  ^  forls  sum,  etc.,  if  I  am  at  home,  etc. ; 
but  if  lam  abroad,  etc.   Plaut.     Ni  puto,  if  I  do  not  think.   Cic. 

1  Sin  from  *X  ne,  *  if  not,' '  if  on  the  contrary,' '  but  if,'  properly  introduces  a  condi- 
tion in  contrast  with  another  condition  expressed  or  implied.  Thus,  sin  forls  is  in  con- 
trast with  SI  domi,  and  means  but  if  abroad. 


n  /^ 


[^ 


4. 


"^ONDIpONAL  SENTENCES,  283 

A 

1.  The  Condition  is  generally  introduced,  wlien  aflSrmative,  by  6?,  with  or  without 
other  particles,  as  quidem,  modo,  etc.,  and  when  negative,  by  si  n^n,  nisi,  nl. 

2.  The  Time  may  be  present,  past,  or  future,  but  it  need  not  be  the  same  in  both 
clauses.  Thus  the  Present  or  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  is  often  followed  by 
the  Future,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples.* 

8.  Si  non  and  nisi  are  often  used  without-Any  perceptible  difference  of  meaning;  but 
strictly  si  n^on  introduces  the  negative  condition  on  which  the  conclusion  depends,  while 
nisi  introduces  a  qualifcation  or  an  exception.  Thus,  in  the  second  example  above,  the 
meaning  is,  if  it  was  not  lawful,  it  follows  that  it  was  not  necessary  ;  while  in  the  fourth 
the  meaning  is,  arms  are  of  little  value  abroad,  except  when  there  is  wisdom  at  home, 

4.  The  Conclusion  irrespective  of  the  condition  may  assume  a  considerable  variety 
of  form.    Thus : 

Redargue  me  si  mentior,  refute  me  if  I  speak  falsely.  Cic.  Moriar,  ni  puto,  may 
I  die,  if  I  do  not  think.  Cic.  Quid  timeam,  si  beatus  futurus  sum,  why  should  I  fear 
if  I  am  going  to  be  happy  f  Cic.  Si  quid  babes  certius,  veUm  '^  scire,  if  you  have  any 
information  (anything  more  certain),  I  should  like  to  know  it.  Cic. 

5,  General  Truths  may  be  expressed  conditionally — 

1)  By  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  as  in  the  sixth  example  under  508. 

2)  By  the  Second  Person  of  the  Subjunctive  used  of  an  indefinite  yoM  (=  any  one)  in 
the  condition,  with  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  : 

Memoria  minuitur,  nisi  eam  exerceas,  the  memory  is  impaired,  if  you  do  not  (one 
does  not)  exercise  it.  Cic.  Nulla  est  excusatio  peccati,  si  amid  causa  peccaveris,  it  is 
71/0  excuse  for  a  fault,  that  you  have  committed  it  for  the  sake  of  a  friend.  Cic. 

509.  Second  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the 
Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  condition  as  possible : 

Haec  si  tecum  patria  loquatur,  nonne  impetrare  debeat,  if  your  country 
shoxdd  speak  thus  with  you.,  ought  she  not  to  obtain  her  request  ?  Cic.  Improbe 
feceris,  nisi  monueris,  you  would  do  wrong,  if  you  should  not  give  warning, 
Cic.    See  also  507,  II. 

Note  1. — The  Time  denoted  by  these  tenses,  the  Present  and  the  Perfect.^  is  generally 
either  present  or  future,  and  the  difference  between  the  two  is  that  the  former  regards 
the  action  in  \i?> progress,  the  latter  in  its  completion.  Thus,  loquatur,  'should  speak' 
(now  or  at  any  future  time);  so  of  debeat;  but/ecerls,  though  referring  to  the  same 
time  as  loquatur,  regards  the  action  as  completed.^ 

Note  2.— The  Present  Subjunctive  is  occasionally  used  in  conditional  sentences,  even 
when  the  condition  is  in  \X&€ii  contrary  to  fact: 

1  A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Future  Perfect  in  the  condition  and  the  Future  in 
the  conclusion,  as  plura  scrlbam,  si  plus  otil  habuero,  corresponds  to  the  Greek  with 
edv  or  dv  with  the  Aorist  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the 
conclusion;  as,  ve'o?  dv  novricrj}^,  yrjpas  e^eis  evOa^is,  ifyoutcill  labor  while  young,  you 
will  hoA^e  a  prosperous  old  age, 

3  Observe  that  in  each  of  these  examples  the  mood  in  the  conclusion  is  entirely  in- 
dependent of  the  condition.  Thus,  redargue  is  a  command;  moriar,  a  prayer.  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire;  quid  timeam,  a  deliberative  question  (484,  V.);  and  'celim,  a  Potential 
Subjunctive  (486,  note  1). 

3  As  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  point  of  time  is  very  closely  related  to  the  Future 
Indicative  in  conditional  sentences,  so  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  is  very  closely  related  to 
the  Future  Perfect  Indicative,  though  It  may  refer  to  past  time. 


284 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


Tu  8l  b!c  SIS,  aliter  sentias,  if  you  were  I  (if  you  were  in  my  place),  you  would  think 
differently.  Ter. 

Note  3.— When  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  the  Present  and  Perfect  are  of 
course  generally  changed  to  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  by  the  law  for  Sequence  of 
Tenses  (490): 

Metuit  ne,  sT  Tret,  retraherGtur,  he  feared  lest,  if  he  should  go,  he  would  he  hrouglit 
hack.  Liv. 

610.  TiiiKD  Form. — Conditional  sentences  with  the  Tm- 
perfect  oi*  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact,  and  simply  state 
what  would  have  been  the  result  if  the  condition  had  been 
fulfilled  : 

Sapientia  n5n  expeteretur,  bi  nihil  efficerct,  wisdom  tcould  not  he  sought  (as 
it  is),  if  it  accomplished  nothing.  Cic.  Si  optima  tenere  possemus,  baud 
sane  consilio  egeremus,  if  we  were  able  to  secure  the  highest  good,  we  should 
7wt  indeed  need  counsel.  Cic.  Si  voluisset,  dimicasset,  if  he  had  wished^  he 
would  have  fought.  Ncp.  NCinquam  abisset,  nisi  sib!  viara  miinlvisset,  he 
would  never  have  gone.,  if  he  had  not  prepared  for  himself  a  way.  Cic.  See 
also  607,  III. 

Note  1. — Hero  the  Imperfect  generally  relates  to  present^  time,  as  in  the  first  and 
second  examples ;  the  Pluperfect  to  past  time,  as  in  the  third  and  fourth  examples. 

Note  2.— The  Imperfect  sometimes  relates  to  past  time,  especially  when  it  expresses 
a  continued  action,  or  is  accompanied  by  any  word  denoting  past  time : 

Nee,  81  cuperes,  tibl  id  facere  licuisset,  nor  would  you  have  heen  permitted  to  do  it, 
if  you  had  desired.  Cic.  Num  Opimium,  si  tum  esses,  temerarium  civem  putares, 
would  you  have  thought  Opimius  an  audacious  citizen  if  you  had  lived  at  that  timet 
Cic, 

51 1.  A  Conclusion  of  the  First  Form  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  Condition  of  the  Second  or  Third  Form.     Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  often  thus  used  in  the  conclusion  (1)  to  denote  a 
general  truth,  and  (2)  to  emphasize  a  fact,  especially  with  a  condition  in- 
troduced by  nisi  or  ni:'^ 

Turpis  excQsatio  est,  s!  quis  fateatur,  etc.,  it  is  a  base  excuse,  if  one  admits, 
etc.  Cic.  Intrare,  si  possim,  castra  bostiuni  volo,  I  wish  to  enter  the  camp  of 
the  enemy,  if  I  am  able.  Liv.  Certamen  aderat,  nl  Fabius  rem  expedlsset*« 
coldest  was  at  hand,  hut  Fabius  (lit.,  if  Fabius  had  not)  adjusted  the  affair.^ 
Liv.  Nee  v5n!,  nisi  fata  locum  dedissent,  nor  should  I  have  come,  had  not 
the  fates  assigned  the  place. ^  Verg. 

1  This  use  of  the  Imperfect  to  denote  present  time  was  developed  from  the  ordinary 
force  of  the  Subjunctive  tenses.  Thus  the  Present  denotes  that  which  is  likely  to  he, 
the  Imperfect  that  which  was  likely  to  he,  and  so  by  implication  that  which  is  not. 
Compare/wiY  in  the  sense  of  was,  but  is  not,  471, 1,  2). 

2  Here  the  condition  merely  introduces  a  qualification  or  an  exception  ;  see  508, 3. 

3  The  force  of  the  Indicative  can  not  be  easily  shown  in  a  translation,  but  the  Latin 
conception  is,  I  have  not  come  without  the  divine  guidance  {ex^TQSs,e^  in  the  condition). 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


285 


Note  1. — The  Future  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  in  the  conclusion  because  of  its 
near  relationship  in  force  to  the  Present  Subjunctive  :  * 

Si  mittat,  quid  respondebis,  if  he  should  send,  what  answer  shall  you  give  t  Lucr. 
Nee  SI  cupias,  liccbit,  nor,  if  you  should  desire  it,  will  it  he  allowed.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  a  neg^ative  conclusion  with  a  negative  condition,  the  verb  possum  is 
generally  in  the  Indicative :  ^ 

Neque  amicitiam  tueri  possumus,  nisi  amicos  dlligamus,  nor  should  we  he  able  to 
preserve  friendship,  if  we  should  not  love  our  friends.  Cic. 

Note  8.— The  Historical  Tenses  of  verbs  denoting  Duty,  Propriety,  Necessity, 
Ability,  and  the  like,  in  the  conclusion  of  conditional  sentences,  are  generally  in  the  In- 
dicative : 

Quem,  sT  ulla  in  te  pietas  esset,  colere  dcbebas,  whom  you  ought  to  have  honored 
(and  would  have  honored),  if  there  were  any  filial  affection  in  you.  Cic.  Vix  castra, 
si  oppugnaretur,  tutari  poterat,  he  was  hardly  able  to  defend  the  camp,  if  he  should 
he  attacked.  Liv.  Dcleri  exercitus  potuit,  si  persecuti  victores  essent,  the  army  might 
have  heen  destroyed  (and  would  have  been),  if  the  victors  had  pursued.  Liv. 

Note  4.— The  Historical  Tenses  of  the  Indicative  of  still  other  verbs  are  sometimes 
similarly  used  when  accompanied  by  paene  or  prope : 

Pons  iter  paene  hostibus  dedit,  ni  unus  vlr  fuisset,  the  bridge  almost  furnished  a 
passage  to  the  enemy  (and  would  have  furnished  it),  had  there  not  heen  one  man.  Liv. 

2.  The  Periphrastic  Forms  in  rus  and  dus  in  the  conclusion  of  condi- 
tional sentences  are  generally  in  the  Indicative :  ^ 

Quid  sl  hostes  veniant,  facturl  estis,  what  shall  you  do  if  the  enemy  should 
come  ?  Liv.  Si  quaeratur,  indicandum  est,  if  inquiry  should  be  made,  in- 
formation must  be  given.  Cic.  Relicturl  agros  erant,  nisi  litteras  misisset, 
they  would  have  left  ^  their  lands,  had  he  not  sent  a  letter.  Cic.  Quid  futurum 
fuit,  61  plebs  agitari  coepta  esset,  what  would  have  been  the  result,  if  the  ple- 
beians had  begun  to  be  agitated  f  Liv.  Si  verum  respondere  velles,  haec  erat 
dicenda,  if  you  wished  to  answer  truly,  this  should  have  been  said.  Cic.  Si 
morati  essetis,  moriendum  omnibus  fuit,  if  you  had  delayed,  you  must  all 
have  perished.    Liv. 

Note.— When  the  Perfect  Indicative  in  the  conclusion  with  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  is  brought  into  a  construction  which  requires  the  Subjunctive,  the  tense  remains 
unchanged,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb : 

Adeo  est  inopia  coactus  ut,  nisi  timuisset,  Galliam  repetiturus  fUerit,*  h^  was  so 

1  See  479,  with  foot-note  8.  A  conditional  sentence  with  the  Present  Subjunctive 
in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  conclusion,  corresponds  to  the  Greek 
iav  with  the  Present  Subjunctive  in  the  condition,  and  the  Future  Indicative  in  the  con- 
clusion: toOto  €dv  aKonfiTc,  evprja-ere,  if  you  examine  this,  you  will  find. 

2  Here,  too,  the  use  of  the  Indicative  grows  out  of  the  relationship  between  the  mean- 
ing of  possum,  denoting  ability,  and  that  of  the  Potential  Subjunctive  denoting  pos- 
sihility. 

3  The  Indicative  is  here  explained  by  the  close  relationship  between  the  ordinary 
meaning  of  the  Subjunctive,  and  that  of  the  forms  in  rus  and  dus  denoting  that  something 
is  about  to  he  done  or  ought  to  he  done. 

*  Lit.,  were  ahout  to  leave,  and  so  would  have  left,  had  he  not,  etc. 

^  Here  repetTdurus  fuerit  is  in  the  Subjunctive,  not  because  it  is  in  a  conditional  sen- 
tence, but  because  it  is  the  Subjunctive  of  Result  with  ut;  but  it  is  in  the  Perfect,  be- 
cause, if  it  were  not  dependent,  the  Perfect  Indicative  would  have  been  used. 


286 


CONDITIONAL  SENTENCES. 


pressed  hy  want  that,,  if  he  had  not  feared^  he  would  have  returned  to  Gaul.  Li  v. 
Haud  dubium  fuit,  quin  nisi  flrmata  extrema  agminis  fuissent,  ingcDS  accipienda  eludes 
fuerit,  there  was  no  doubt  that^  had  not  the  rear  of  the  line  been  made  strong,,  a  great 
disaster  must  have  been  siistained.  Liv.  Quaeris  quid  potuerit  amplius  assequi,  si 
Scipionis  fuisset  fllius,  you  ask  what  m,ore  he  could  have  attained^  if  he  had  been  the 
son  of  Scipio.  Cic. 

512.  A  Conclusion  of  the  Third  Form  (510)  is  sometimes  combined 
with  a  Condition  of  the  Second  Form  (509) ; 

Si  tecum  loquantur,  quid  respondcres,  if  the?/  should  speak  ivith  yoic^  what 
answer  would  you  give  f  Cic. 

RULE  XLV.— Conditional  Clauses  with  dum,  modo»  ISuc  s), 

ut  SI»  etc. 

513.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive — 

I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo/  'if  only,'  *  provided  that';  dum 
ne,  modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  *  if  only  not,'  '  provided  that  not ' :  * 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  powers  remain,,  if  only 
industry  remains.  Cic.  Dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant,  let  them  make 
ivords,,  if  only  the  facts  remain.  Cic.  Dummodo  repellat  periculum,  'provided 
he  may  avert  danger.  Cic.  Dum  ne  tibl  videar,  non  Idhoxo^ provided  Ida  not 
seem  so  to  youy  I  do  not  care.   Cic. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  *  as  if,'  *  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habobo,  ac  si  scrlpsisses,  /  shall  regard  it  jnst  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  if)  you  had  written.  Cic.  Jacent,  tanquam  omnino  sine  animo  sint, 
they  lie  as  if  (i.  e.^  as  they  would  lie  if)  they  ivere  entirely  without  mind.  Cic. 
Quam  si  vixerit  tecum,  as  if  he  had  lived  with  you.  Cic.  Miserior  es,  quam 
si  oculos  non  haberes,  you  are  more  unhappy  than  (you  would  be)  if  you  had 
not  eyes.  Cic.  Crudelitatem,  velut  si  adesset,  horrebant,  they  shuddered  at 
his  cruelty  as  (they  would)  if  he  were  present.  Cacs.  Ut  si  in  suam  rem 
aliena  convertant,  as  if  they  should  appropriate  others'  pomessions  to  their  own 
use.    Cic.     Tanquam  audiant,  as  if  they  may  hear.   Sen. 

Note  1.— In  this  form  of  conditional  sentences,  the  Present  ^  or  Imperfect  is  used  cf 
present  time,  and  the  Perfect  ^  or  Pluperfect  of  past  time ;  see  examples  above. 


1  When  not  used  in  conditions,  these  conjunctions  often  admit  the  Indicative :  Dum 
leges  vigebant,  while  the  laws  were  in  force.  Cic. 

2  This  Subjunctive  is  best  explained  as  the  Subjunctive  of  Desire,,  as  indicated  by  the 
negative  ne  (483,  3).  Thus,  modo  permaneat  industria,,  *only  let  industry  remain*; 
dum  ne  tibl  videar,,  Met  me  not  meanwhile  seem  so  to  you.*  After  dum  and  dummodo 
the  Subjunctive  may  perhaps  be  explained  as  Potential^  but  the  negative  ?te  renders  such 
an  explanation  very  doubtful. 

3  The  English  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  only  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  as 
under  510;  but  the  Latin  often  regards  the  condition  as  possible^  and  thus  uses  tho 
Present  and  Perfect^  as  under  509. 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES. 


287 


Note  %—Ceu  and  sicuti  are  sometimes  used  like  dc  si,  ut «?,  etc. : 
Ceu  bella  forent,  as  if  there  were  wars.  Verg.    Sicuti  audiri  possent,  as  if  they  could 
be  heard.  Sail. 

V.  Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

514.  A  concessive  clause  is  one  which  concedes  or  admits  some- 
thing, generally  introduced  in  English  by  though  or  although :  ^ 

Quamquam  itinere  fessi  erant,  tamen  procedunt,  although  they  were  weary 
with  the  journey,,  they  still  (yet)  advanced.   Sail. 

Note.— The  concessive  particle  is  sometimes  omitted  : 

Sed  habeat,  tamen,  etc.,  but  grant  that  he  has  it,,  yet,,  etc.  Cic. 

RULE  XL VI.— Moods  in  Concessive  Clauses. 

615.  Concessive  clauses  take — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when 
introduced  by  quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  taraen  nunquam  dicunt,  though  they  understand, 
they  n^er  speak.  Cic.  Quamquam  festinas,  non  est  mora  longa,  though 
you  arejnjmste^  the  delay  is  iiot  long,   Hor.        -       .^  _ 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Suhjunctive^  w^hen  introduced 
by  etsl^  etiamsl^  tametsi,  or  6^,  like  conditional  clauses 
with  si.     Thus — 

1.  The  Indicative  is  used  to  represent  the  supposed  case  as  Sifact: 
Gaudeo,  etsi  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  I  rejoice,  though  Iknou)  no  reason 

lohy  I  should  rejoice.    Plaut. 

2.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed  case 
as  possible : 

Etsi  nihil  habeat  in  se  gloria,  tamen  virtutem  sequitur,  though  glory 
may  not  possess  anything  in  itself  yet  it  follows  virtue.    Cic. 

3.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive,  to  represent  the  supposed 
ease  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Etiamsl  mors  oppetenda  esset,  domi  mallem,  even  if  death  ought  to  be 
met,  I  should  prefer  to  meet  it  at  home.    Cic. 

III.  The  Subjunctive^  when  introduced  by  licet,^  quam- 
vls^  ut^  ne^  cum^  or  the  relative  qui : 

1  Concessive  clauses  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  conditional  clauses  both  in  form 
and  in  use.  Si  optimum  est, '  if  it  is  best,'  is  a  condition ;  etsi  optimum  est, '  even  if  (or 
though)  it  is  best,'  is  a  concession ;  the  one  assumes  a  supposed  case,  the  other  admits 
it.  The  Subjunctive  in  concessive  clauses  is  in  general  best  explained  in  the  same  way 
as  in  conditional  clauses;  see  507, 1,  foot-note  2. 

2  In  origin  licet  is  simply  the  impersonal  verb  of  the  same  form,  and  the  Subjunctive 


288 


CONCESSIVE  CLAUSES, 


Licet  irrideat,  plus  tamen  ratio  valebit,  though  he  may  dei'ide,  reason 
will  yet  avail  more.  Cic,  Non  tu  possTs,  quamvis  excellas,  you  would  7iot 
he  abhy  although  you  excel,  Cic.  Ut  desint  vires,  tamen  est  laudanda 
voluntas,  though  the  strength  fails,  still  the  will  should  be  approved.  Ovid. 
N6  sit  summum  malum  dolor,  malum  certe  est,  though  paiii  may  not  he  the 
greatest  evil,  it  is  certainly  an  evil,  Cic.  Cum  domi  divitiae  adfluerent, 
fuere  tamen  elves,  etc.,  though  tvcalth  abounded  at  home,  there  were  yet 
citizens,  etc.  Sail.  Absolvite  Verrem,  qui  {cum  is)  se  fateatur  pecunias 
cepisse,  acquit  Vcrres,  though  he  confesses  (who  may  confess)  that  lie  has 
accepted  money,    Cic. 

Note  1. — Quamquam  takes  the  Subjunctive — 

1)  When  the  thought,  irrespective  of  the  concessive  character  of  the  clause,  requires 
that  mood  : 

Quamquam  epulis  careat  senectus,  though  old  age  may  he  without  its  feasts.  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes,  even  in  the  best  prose,  apparently  without  any  special  reason  : 
Quamquam  no  id  quidem  suspicionem  habuerit,  though  not  even  that  gave  rise  to 

any  suspicion.   Cic. 

3)  In  poetry  and  in  late  prose,  the  Subjunctive  witfh  quamquam  is  not  uncommon. 
In  Tacitus  it  is  the  prevailing  construction : 

Quamquam  invlcti  essent,  although  they  were  invincible.  Verg.  Quamquam  plerT- 
que  ad  senectam  pervenirent,  although  very  many  reached  old  age.  Tac. 

Note  2. — Quamquam  and  etsl  sometimes  have  the  force  of  yet^  but  yet,  and  yet: 

Quamquam  quid  loquor,  and  yet  why  do  I  speak  t  Cic.  Etsi  tibl  assentior,  and  yet 
J  assent  to  you.  Cic. 

Note  ^.—Quamvis  in  the  best  prose  takes  the  Subjunctive  almost  without  exception, 
generally  also  in  Livy  and  Nepos;  but  in  poetry  and  in  late  prose  it  often  admits  the 
Indicative : 

Erat  dignitate  regia,  quamvis  carebat  nomine,  he  was  of  royal  dignity,  though  he 
was  without  the  name.  Nep. 

Note  4. — Qui  and  cum,  used  concessively,  generally  take  the  Indicative  in  Plautus 
and  Terence,  and  sometimes  even  in  classical  prose  : 

Andes  praedicure  id,  domi  te  esse  nunc  qui  hie  ades,  do  you  dare  to  assert  this,  that 
you  are  now  at  home,  although  you  are  here  present?  Plant.  Cum  tabulas  emunt, 
tamen  nequeunt,  though  they  purchase  paintings,  they  are  yet  unable.  Sail.  Cum 
Sicilia  vexata  est,  tamen,  though  Sicily  was  disturbed,  yet.  Cic. 

Note  5. —  Ut — sic,  or  ut — ita,  *  though — yet'  (lit.,  'as — so'),  involving  comparison 
rather  than  concession,  does  not  require  the  Subjunctive  : 

Ut  a  proeliTs  quictem  habuerant,  ita  non  cC-ssaverant  ab  opere,  though  (lit.,  as)  they 
had  had  rest  from  battles,  yet  (lit.,  so)  they  had  not  ceased  from  work.  Li  v. 

Note  6. — Quamvis  and  quantumvls,  meBJimg  'as  much  as  you  please,'  'however 
much,'  may  accompany  licet  with  the  Subjunctive: 

Non  possis  tu,  quantumvTs  licet  excellas,  you  would  not  he  able,  however  much  you 
may  excel.  Cic. 

clause  which  follows,  developed  from  Result  (501, 1.),  is  its  subject.  Thus,  in  licet 
irr'ideat  (lit.,  'that  he  may  deride  is  allowed'),  irrideat  is  according  to  the  Latin  con- 
ception the  subject  of  licet.  Quam-vis,  compounded  of  quam, '  as,'  and  vis, '  you  wish,' 
means  as  you  loish;  thus,  quamvis  e/xcellds  means  literally  eV'Cel  as  you  wish  (i.  e.,  as 
much  as  you  please).  The  Subjunctive  with  quaimns,  \it,  ne,  and  qui,  is  the  Subjunc- 
tive of  Desire;  that  with  cum  was  developed  from  the  temporal  clause;  see  521. 


CAUSAL   CLAUSES. 
VI.  Moods  in  Causal  Clauses. 


289 


RULE  XLVn.-Mood3  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,» 

516.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam, 
quaudo,  generally  take — 

I.  The  Indicative  to  assign  a  reason  ^t?5^V^Wy,  on  07ie's 
own  authority  : 

Quoniam  supplicStio  decreta  est,  celebratote  illos  dies,  since  a  thanks- 
giving has  been  decreed,  celebrate  those  days,  Cic.  Gaude  quod  spectant  te, 
rejoice  that  (because)  they  behold  you,   Hor. 

II.  The  SuBjuNCTrv-E  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully^  or 
on  another^ s  authority  : ' 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juventutem,  Socrates  was  ac- 
cused, because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  he  corrupted  the  youth.  Quint. 
Aristldes  nOnne  expulsus  est  patria,  quod  Justus  esset,  was  not  Aristides 
banished  because  (on  the  alleged  ground  that)  Jie  was  just?  Cic. 

1.  By  a  special  construction,  the  verb  introducing  a  reason  on  another's 
authority  is  sometimes  put  in  the  Infinitive,  depending  upon  a  verb  of  saying 
or  thinking  in  the  Subjunctive  : 

Quod  se  bellum  gestures  dicerent  (=  quod  bellum  gesturl  essent,  ut  dlcd- 
bant),  because  they  were  about,  as  they  said,  to  wage  war,    Caes. 

NoTE.-In  the  same  way  the  Subjunctive  of  a  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  may  be 
used  in  a  relative  clause  to  introduce  the  sentiment  of  another  person  : 

Ementiendo  quae  se  audlsse  dicerent,  by  reporting  falsely  what  they  had  heard 
(what  they  said  they  had  heard).  Sail. 

2.  Non  Quo  T.TG.—Ndn  quo,  non  quod,  non  quln,  rarely  non  quia,  also 
guam  quod,  etc.,  are  used  with  the  Subjunctive  to  denote  an  alleged  reason  in 
distinction  from  the  true  reason  : 

N6n  quo  haberem  quod  scriberem,  not  because  (that)  /  had  anything  to 
wHte.  Cic.    Non  quod  doleant,  not  because  they  are  pained.   Cic.    Quia  ne- 

1  Quod  and  quia  are  in  origin  relative  pronouns  in  the  neuter.  Thus :  gaude  quod 
spectant  te, '  rejoice  that  (as  to  that)  they  behold  you.^  Quoniam  =  quom^jam,  *  when 
now;  and  quando  =  quam-do  {do  =  die), '  on  which  day/  » when.'  Do  is  probably  from 
the  same  root  as  dum  ;  see  p.  145,  foot-note  1. 

2  Observe  that  causal  clauses  with  the  Indicative  state  a  fact,  and  at  the  same  time 
present  that  fact  as  a  reason  or  cause,  as  in  the  first  example,  but  that  causal  clauses 
with  the  Subjunctive  simply  assign  a  reason  without  asserting  any  fact.  Thus,  in  the 
examples  under  II.,  quod  corrumperet  juventHtem  does  not  state  that  Socrates  cor- 
rupted the  yout1i,hui  simply  indicates  the  charge  made  against  him;  nor  does  quod 
Justus  esset  state  that  Aristides  was  just,  but  simply  indicates  the  alleged  ground  of 
his  banishment.  For  the  development  of  the  Subjunctive  in  causal  clauses,  see  p.  267, 
foot-note  8. 

13 


290 


CAUSAL   CLAUSES, 


quiverat  quam  quod  Ignoraret,  because  he  had  been  unable,  rather  than  because 
he  did  not  know,  Liv. 

Note.— Clauses  with  quod  sometimes  stand  at  the  beginning  of  sentences  to  an- 

nounce  the  subject  of  remark  :  ^    *    i.  *,    * 

Quod  me  Agamemnonem  aemulari  putas,  falleris,  in  thinking  (as  to  the  fact  that 

you  think)  that  1  emulate  Agarncmnon,  you  are  mistaken.  Nep. 

RUIiE  Xli VIII,— Causal   Clauses  with  cum  and  qui. 

517.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui  generally  take 
the  Subjunctive,  in  writers  of  the  best  period  : 

Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes  esse,  since  there  are  gods,  it  is  neces- 
sary  that  there  should  he  living  beings.  Cic.  Cum  vita  metus  plena  sit, 
since  life  is  full  of  fear.  Cic.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  perge,  since  these  things 
are  so,  proceed.  *Cic.  0  vis  veritatis,  quae  {cum  ea)  se  defendat,  0  the 
force  of  truth,  since  it  defends  itself.  Cic.  O  fortunate  adulescens,  qui 
(cum  tu)  tuae  virtutis  Ilomerum  praeconem  inveneris,  0  fortunate  youth, 
since  you  (lit.,  who)  have  obtained  Homer  as  the  herald  of  your  valor.   Cic. 

1.  In  early  Latin,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  the  Indicative  is  the 
prevailing  mood  in  causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui,  though  the  Subjunctive 
is  not  uncommon  with  qui ; » 

Quo9i2  lacere  ollicium  scis  tuum,  since  you  know  how  to  do  your  duty. 
Plant.  Quom  hoc  non  possum,  since  I  have  not  this  poioer.  Ter.  Qui  ad- 
vcnisti,  since  you  have  come.  Plant.  Tuas  qui  virtutes  sciam,  since  1  know 
your  virtues.  V\Q.\xi.     Q;al  nlminam  vidiQum,  since  1  see  no  one.   Ter. 

2.  Clauses  with  either  cum  or  qui  admit  the  Indicative  in  all  writers, 
when  the  statement  is  viewed  as  Q.fact :  i     -  j 

Habeo  senectuti  gratiam,  quae  mihi  sermonis  aviditatem  auxit,  7  cherish 
gratitude  to  old  age,  which  has  increased  my  love  of  conversation,  Cic.    Gratu- 

r^lauses  with  cm^  whether  causal  or  temporal,  illustrate  the  gradual  extension  of 
the  use  of  the  Subjunctive  in  subordinate  clauses.    Originally  they  took  the  Indicative, 
unless  the  thought  irrespective  of  the  causal  or  temporal  character  of  the  clause  required 
the  Subjunctive.    Thus  the  Ciceronian  sentence,  Necesse  est,  cum  sint  dil,  animantes 
esse,  *  since  there  are  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  bo  living  beings,'  would  in 
early  Latin  have  been,  Necesse  est,  cum  mint  dil,  animantes  esse,  and  would  have  con- 
tained two  distinct  statements,  viz.,  there  are  gods,  and  it  is  necessary  that  th^re  sJwuld 
be  living  beings.    But  in  time  the  causal  clause  lost  so  much  of  its  original  force  as  a 
separate  statement,  and  became  so  entirely  dependent  upon  the  principal  clause,  as  to  be 
little  more  than  an  adverbial  modifier  of  the  latter,  like  the  Ablative  of  Cause  (413)  in  a 
simple  sentence.    The  causal  clause  then  took  the  Subjunctive,  and  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  made  but  one  distinct  statement,  which  may  be  approximately  rendered,  in  mew 
^f  (because  of)  the  existence  of  the  gods,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  be  littng 
beings.    In  the  same  way,  temporal  clauses  with  cxim  sometimes  became  little  more 
than  adverbial  modifiers  of  the  principal  verb;  see  521,  II.,  1,  with  foot-note,  and  521, 
II.,  2,  with  foot-note.    For  a  special  treatment  of  these  clauses,  see  Hoffmann, '  Die  Con- 
struction der  lateinischen  Zeitpartikeln,'  and  Liibbert,  'Die  Syntax  von  Quom.' 
2  See  311, 1,  with  foot-noto  4. 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 


291 


lor  tibi,  cum  tantum  vales,  /  congratulate  you  that  (in  view  of  the  fact  that) 
you  have  so  great  influence.   Cic. 

3.  When  a  conjunction  accompanies  the  relative,  the  mood  varies  with  the 
conjunction.    Thus — 

1)  The  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  with  cum,  qulppe,  nt,  utpote : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.  Quippe  qui  blandiatur, 
since  he  flatters  (as  one  who  flatters).  Cic.  Ut  qui  coloni  essent,  since  they 
were  colonists.   Cic. 

Note. — But  the  Indicative  is  sometimes  used  to  give  prominence  to  the/ac^.  In 
Sallust  the  Indicative  is  the  regular  construction  after  quippe: 

Quippe  qui  regnum  invaserat,  flw  he  had  laid  hold  of  the  kingdom.  Sail. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  generally  used  with  quia,  quoniam  : 

Quae  quia  certa  esse  non  possunt,  since  these  things  can  not  be  sure,  Cic. 
Qui  quoniam  intellegl  noluit,  since  he  did  not  wish  to  be  iinder stood,  Cic. 


VII.  Moods  in  Temporal  Clauses.* 
RULE  XLTX,— Temporal  Clauses  with  postquam»  etc. 

518.  In  temporal  clauses  \f\\\i  postquarri^  postedquarri^ 
tibl^  ut^  simul  atque^  etc.,  '  after,'  '  when,'  ^  as  soon  as,' 
the  Indicative  is  used : 

Postquam  vidit,  etc.,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  'he  saw, 

etc.   Caes.     Ubi  certiOres  fact!  sunt,  when  they  were  informed.   Caes.     Id 

ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.     Postquam  vident,  after  they  saw,^  Sail. 

Postquam  nox  aderat,  wlien  flight  was  at  hand.   Sail. 

Note  1. — The  tense  in  these  clauses  is  generally  the  Perfect  or  the  Historical  Pres- 
ent, but  sometimes  the  Descriptive  Imperfect;  *  see  examples  above;  also  471,  4. 
Note  2.— The  Pluperfect  Indicative  is  sometimes  used— 

1)  Especially  to  denote  the  result  of  a  completed  action  : 

Posteaquam  consul  fuerat,  after  he  ha^  been  consul.^  Cic.  Anno  tertio  postquam 
profagerat,  in  the  third  year  after  he  had  fled.  Nep. 

2)  To  denote  repeated  action  :  « 

Ut  quisque  venerat,  solebat,  etc.,  as  each  one  came  (lit.,  had  come),  he  was  wont, 
etc.  Cic. 

Note  S.—Postrldie  quam,  is  used  like  postquam : 

Postridlo  quam  tu  es  profectus,  on  the  day  after  you  started.  Cic. 

1.  In  Livy  and  the  late  historians,  the  Pluperfect  or  Imperfect  Subjunctive 
is  often  used  to  denote  repeated  action : « 

.    1  On  Temporal  Clauses,  see  Hoffmann, '  Die  Construction  der  lateinischen  Zeitparti- 
keln,' and  Lubbert,  '  Die  Syntax  von  Quom.' 

2  Or  post  quam  and  posted  quam, 

3  See  467,  III.,  with  1. 

4  See  469,  L 

6  And  was  accordingly  at  the  time  a  man  of  consular  rank. 

«  In  this  case  the  Imperfect  Indicative  is  generally  used  in  the  principal  clause,  as  in 
the  example  here  given. 


292 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES, 


Id  ubi  dixisset,  hastam  mittebat,  wlienever  he  had  said  that,  he  Mrled  (was 
wont  to  hurl)  a  spear,  Li  v. 

NOTE.-AS  a  rare  exception,  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  occur  after 
postquam  or  postedquam :  ^ 

Posteuquam  aedificasset  clussCs,  after  he  had  huilt fleets.  Cic. 

o  When  the  verb  is  in  the  second  person  singular  to  denote  an  indefinite 
subject,  you  =  any  one,  one,  the  Subjunctive  is  generally  used  in  temporal 

clauses  * 

Nolunt  ubi  veils,  ub!  nOlis  cupiunt,  they  are  unwilling  when  you  wish  it  (when 
one  wishes  it),  when  you  are  unwilling  they  desire  U.  Tcr.  Priusquam  in^ 
cipias,  consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin,  there  is  need  of  deliberation.   Sail. 

RULE  Li.— Temporal  Clauses  with  dum,  etc.^ 

519.  I.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum^  donec^  and  quoad,, 
in  the  sense  of  while,  as  long  as,  take  the  Indicative  : 

Haec  feci,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed,  Cic.  Quoad  vLxit, 
as  long  as  he  lived,  Nep.  Dum  leges  vigebant,  as  long  as  the  laws  were  in 
force,  Cic.  Donee  eris  felix,  as  long  as  you  shall  he  prosperous.  Ov. 
Quamdiu  in  provincia  fuerunt,  as  long  as  they  iccre  in  the  province.    Cic. 

II.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum^  donee,  and  quoad^  in 
the  sense  of  until,  take — 

1.  The  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  \ 

Dellbera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  cormder  this  until  I  return,  Ter.  Donee 
rediit,  until  lie  returned,  Liv.  Quoad  renuntiatum  est,  until  it  was  (actual- 
ly)  announced,  Nep. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  some- 
thing DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED : 

Dififerant,  dum  defervescat  Ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools 
(i.  e.,  that  it  may  cool).  Cic.  Exspectas  dum  dicat,  you  are  waiting  till  he 
speaks  (i.  e.,  that  he  may  speak).  Cic.  Ea  continebis  quoad  te  videam, 
you  will  keep  them  till  I  see  you,   Cic. 

NoTK  1.— In  Livy  and  the  lato  historians,  dum  is  sometimes  used  with  the  Imperfect 
Sublunctive,  and  donee  with  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect,  like  cum  in  narration  :  a 

i)um  ea  gererentur,  bellum  concitur,  while  these  things  were  in  progresH  (were 
done)  a  war  was  commenced.  Liv.  Nihil  trepldubant  donee  ponto  agerentur,  they  did 
not  fear  at  all  while  they  were  driven  on  the  hHdge.  Liv.  Donee  missi  essent,  until 
they  had  been  sent.  Liv. 

Note  'i.— Donee,  in  Tacitus,  generally  takes  the  Subjunctive : 

1  But  the  text  in  these  cases  is  somewhat  uncertain. 

a  See  p.  291,  foot-noto  1.  ^  See  p.  295,  foDt-note  1. 


TEMPORAL  CLAUSES, 


293 


Rhenus  servat  violentiam  cursiis,  donee  Oceano  misceatur,  the  Rhine  preserves  the 
rapidity  of  its  current  till  it  mingles  with  the  ocean.  Tac. 

RULE   I*L— Temporal   Clauses  with   antequam  and  prius- 

quanu 

520.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  prius- 
quam ^ — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put —  ^ 

1.  In  the  Indicative^  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an 

ACTUAL  FACT  I 

Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light,  Cic.  Ante- 
quam  in  Siciliam  venT,  before  I  came  hito  Sicily,  Cic.  Antequam  cOgno- 
vero,2  before  I  shall  have  ascertained,  Cic.  Nee  prius  respexi  quam  veni- 
mus,  nor  did  I  look  back  until  ice  arrived,  Yerg. 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive^''  when  the  action  is  viewed  as 

SOMETHING  DESIRED,  PROPOSED,  Or  CONCEIVED  : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam,  exponam  consilium,  /  will  set  forth  my 
plan  before  I  (can)  speak  of  the  republic  (i.  e.,  preparatory  to  speaking  of 
the  republic).'*  Cic.  Non  prius  duces  dfmittunt,  quam  ^  sit  concessum,  they 
did  not  dismiss  the  leaders  till  it  icas  granted.  Caes.  Priusquam  incipias, 
consulto  opus  est,  before  you  begin  there  is  need  of  deliberation  (i.  e.,  as 
preparatory  to  beginning).^  Sail.  Tempestas  minatur,  antequam  surgat, 
the  tempest  threatens,  before  it  rises.  Sen.  Collem,  priusquam  sentiatur, 
communit,  he  fortified  the  hill  before  it  was  (could  he)  perceived,^  Caes. 

11.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the 
Suhjunctive :  ^ 


»  Often  written  ante  quam  and  prius  quam,  sometimes  with  intervening  words 
between  ante  or  prius  and  quam.    See  also  p.  291,  foot-note  1. 

a  The  Future  is  used  only  in  early  Latin,  as  in  Plautus  and  Cato. 

»  Remember  that  the  Future  is  supplied  in  the  Subjunctive  by  the  Present;  see  496. 

♦  Here  the  temporal  clause  involves  purpose  as  well  as  time,  Antequam  dlcam  is 
nearly  equivalent  to  ut  posted  dlcam :  '  I  will  set  forth  my  views,  that  I  may  after- 
ward speak  of  the  republic' 

6  Remember  also  that  in  temporal  clauses  the  second  person  singular  with  an  indefi- 
nite subject,  you  =  any  one,  one,  is  generally  in  the  Subjunctive ;  see  518,  2. 

«  Potential  Subjunctive ;  see  486,  III. 

"^  The  Subjunctive  in  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  is  not  always  to  be  refer- 
red to  the  same  principle.  Sometimes,  like  the  Subjunctive  after  dum,  it  is  best  ex- 
plained as  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose,  as  in  the  first  example,  and  sometimes  like  the 
Subjunctive  of  the  historical  tenses  after  cum;  see  p.  295,  foot-note  1. 


294 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES, 


Non  prius  egressus  est  quam  rex  eum  in  fidem  reciperet,  he  did  not 
withdraw  until  the  king  took  him  urufer  his  protection.  Nep.  Priusquam 
petcret  cGnsulatum,  insanit,  he  teas  insane  before  he  sought  tJie  cojisulship, 
Liv.  Prius  visus  est  Caesar,  quam  fama  perferretur,  Caesar  appeared 
before  any  tidings  loere  brought,  Caes.  Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before 
they  took  the  city.  Liv.  Priusquam  dG  meO  adventu  audire  potuissent,  in 
Macedoniam  perrexl,  before  they  were  able  to  hear  of  my  approach^  I  went 
into  Macedonia.  Cic.  Pauels  ante  diebus,  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  a 
few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken,   Liv.  // 

Note  1.— When  the  principal  clause  is  negative  and  contains  an  historical  tense,  the 
temporal  clause  generally  takes  the  Perfect  Indicative,  a8  in  the  last  example  under  L,  1 ; 
but  it  sometimes  takes  the  Subjunctive,  as  in  the  first  example  under  II. 
Note  2.—Prldie  quam  takes  the  same  moods  as  priu8gua7n  : 
Pridio  quam  scrips!,  the  day  be/ore  I  urate.  Cic.    Pridio  quam  perlret,  somniavit, 
he  had  a  dream  on  the  day  before  he  died.  Suet. 

Note  3.— Jj'or  the  Subjunctive  of  the  second  person  with  an  indefinite  subject,  see 
518,  2. 

BXJIiE  UI.— Temporal  Clauses  with  cum. 

521.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  * — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect 
is  put  in  the  Indicative : 

Cum  verba  faciunt,  majores  suos  extollunt,  ivhen  they  speak,  they  extol 
their  ancestors.  Sail.  Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  lohile  they  are  silent  they 
approve.  Cic.  Libros,  cum  est  otium,  legere  soleo,  when  there  is  (eisurc. 
Jam  wont  to  read  books.  Cic.  Ad  te  scribam,  cum  plus  Otii  nactus  ero,  / 
shall  write  to  you  when  I  shall  have  obtained  more  leisure.  Cic.  Omnia  sunt 
incerta  cum  a  jure  discessum  est,  all  things  are  uncertain  when  one  has  de- 
parted from  the  right. ^  Cic. 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative^  when  the  temporal  clause  asserts 

AN  HISTORICAL  FACT  I 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary,^  Cic.  Non- 
dum  profectus  erat,  cum  haec  gerebantur,  he  had  not  yet  started  when  these 
things  took  place,  Liv.  Turn  cum  res  magnas  permulti  amlserant,  Romae 
fides  concidit,  then,  when  many  had  lost  great  fortunes,  credit  fell  at  Rome. 
Cic.  Cum  quaepiam  cohors  impetum  fecerat,  hostes  refugiebant,  whenever 
any  cohort  made  (had  made)  an  attack,  the  enemy  retreated.   Caes. 

1  See  p.  290,  foot-note  1,  with  the  works  of  Hoffmann  and  Lubbert  there  mentioned. 

"  Discessum  est  is  an  Impersonal  Passive,  a  departure  has  been  made  ;  see  301, 1. 

3  Here  the  temporal  clause  not  only  defines  the  time  of  paruit,  but  also  makes  a 
distinct  and  separate  statement,  viz.,  it  icas  necessary  ;  see  p.  295,  foot-note  1 ;  also, 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 


TEMPORAL   CLAUSES. 


295 


2.  In  the  Subjunctive^  when  the  temporal  clause  sim- 
ply DEFINES  THE  TIME  of  the  principal  action  :  * 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  tabellarii  venerunt,  while  I  was  folding  the 
letter  (i^*  e.,  during  the  act),  the  postmen  came.^  Cic.  Cum  ex  Aegypto  rever- 
teretur,  decessit,  he  died  while  he  was  returning  (during  his  return)  from 
Egypt.  Nep.  Cum  dimicaret,  occlsus  est,  when  he  engaged  in  battle,  he  icas 
slain,  Nep.  ZenOnem,  cum  Athenls  essem,  audiebam  frequenter,  I  often 
heard  Zeno  when  I  was  at  Athens.  Cic.  Cum  tridul  viam  perfecisset,  nun- 
tiatum  est,  etc.,  when  he  had  accomplished  a  journey  of  three  days,  it  was  an- 
nounced, etc.  Caes.  Caesari  cum  id  nuntiatum  esset,  maturat  ab  urbe 
proficisci,  when  this  toas  (had  been)  announced  to  Caesar,  he  hastened  to  set 
out  from  the  city.    Caes. 

1)  Cum  with  the  force  of  a  relative  after  tempus,  aetds,  and  the  like,  takes — 

(1)  Sometimes  the  Lidicative,  to  state  a  fact : 

Fuit  tempus,  cum  homines  vagabantur,  there  was  a  time  when  men  led  a 
wandering  life,   Cic. 

Note. — Cum  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus,  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  hoc  did  poterat,  there  wastTttr/r^Wftfirh  this  could  be  said.  Liv. 

(2)  Generally  the  Subjunctive,  to  characterize  the  period :  ^ 

Id  saeculum  cum  plena  Graecia  poetarum  esset,  that  age  when  (such  that) 
Greece  was  full  of  poets,  Cic.  Erit  tempus,  cum  dcsideres,  the  time  will  comcj 
ivhen  you  will  desire.    Cic. 

Note  1. —  Cum,  is  sometimes  thus  used  without  tempus^  etc. : 

Fuit  cum  arbitrurer,  there  was  a  time  when  I  thought.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Jleminl  cum,  *  I  remember  when,'  generally  takes  the  Indicative,  but  au- 
dio cum^  video  cum,  and  animadverto  cum,  generally  the  Subjunctive : 

Memini  cum  mihi  desipere  yidebare,  I  remember  when  you  seemed  to  me  to  be  un- 
wise. Cic.    Audivi  cum  diceret,  I  heard  him  say  (lit.,  when  he  said).  Cic. 

2)  Cum^  TaQomngfrom  the  time  wlien,  since,  takes  the  Indicative  : 
Centum  anni  sunt,  cum  dictator  fuit,  it  is  one  hundred  years  since  he  was 

dictator.   Cic. 

Note  l.—Oum  ,  .  .  tum^  in  the  sense  of  *not  only  .  .  .  but  also,'  'both  .  .  .  and,' 
generally  takes  the  Indicative  in  both  clauses,  but  in  the  sense  of '  though  .  .  .  yet^  the 
Indicative  in  the  first  clause  and  the  Subjunctive  in  the  second : 

Cum  antea  distinebar,  turn  hoc  tempore  distineor,  not  only  was  I  occupied  before^ 


^  In  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  tenses  the  choice  of  mood  often  depends  not  so 
much  upon  the  nature  of  the  thought,  as  upon  the  intention  and  feeling  of  the  writer  at 
the  moment.  If  he  wishes  to  assert  that  the  action  of  the  temporal  clause  is  an  histori- 
cal fact,  he  uses  the  Indicative  ;  but  if  he  introduces  it  for  the  sole  purpose  of  defining 
the  time  of  the  principal  action,  he  uses  the  Subjunctive.  Thus,  cum  epistulam  com- 
plicarem does  not  assert  that  I  folded  the  letter,  but,  assuming  that  as  admitted,  it 
makes  use  of  it  in  defining  the  time  of  venerunt.  See  also  foot-note  under  1  above ;  also 
p.  290,  foot-note  1. 

2  Like  the  Subjunctive  in  relative  clauses  alter  indeflnito  antecedents ;  see  503, 1. 


296 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE, 


hut  I  am  aUo  occupied  now.  Cic.    Quae  cum  sint  gravia,  turn  illud  acerbissimum  est, 
though  these  things  are  severe^  that  is  the  most  grievous.  Cic. 

Note  2.— For  cum  in  Causal  clauses,  see  617. 

Note  3.— For  cwm  in  Concessive  clauses,  see  615,  III. 

VIII.  Indirect  Discourse — Ordtid  Ohllqua, 
Moods  and  Tenses  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

522.  When  a  writer  or  speaker  expresses  thoughts,  whether  his 
own  or  those  of  another,  in  any  other  form  than  in  the  original 
words  of  the  author,  he  is  said  to  use  the  Indirect  Discourse— Om- 
tid  Obllqua : ' 

Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came  into  Italy. 
Cic.  Kespondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  moderate,  I  reply  that  you  hear  the  affliction 
with  moderation.  Cic.  Utilem  arbitror  esse  scientiam,  I  think  that  knowledge 
is  useful.   Cic. 

1.  In  distinction  from  tlic  Indirect  Discourse— (>?'a^io  Ohllqua^  the  original 
words  of  the  author  are  said  to  be  in  the  Direct  Discourse— (}m^/<5  Recta, 

2.  Words  quoted  without  change  belong  to  the  Direct  Discourse  : 

Kex  '  duumviros  '  inquit '  secundum  legem  facio,'  the  king  said,  '^  I  appoint 
duumvirs  according  to  law.'*  Li  v. 

RULE  lilH.— Moods  in  Principal  Clauses. 

623.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
on  becoming  Indirect  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive 
as  follows : 

I.  When  Declarative,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a 
Suhject  Accusative. 

Dicebat  animos  esse  dlvTnos,  he  was  wont  to  say  tliat  souls  are  divine. 
Cic.  Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Taren- 
turn.  Cic.  Cato  mirari  se  aiebat,  Cato  zoos  wont  to  say  that  he  wondered. 
Cic.  Hippias  gloriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  cOnfecisse,*  Hippias 
boasted  that  he  had  made  the  ring  with  his  own  hand.   Cic. 

Note.— The  verb  on  which  the  Infinitive  depends  is  often  omitted,  or  only  implied  in 
some  preceding  verb  or  expression ;  especially  after  the  Subjunctive  of  Purpose : 

1  Thus,  in  the  first  example,  Platonem  in  ttaliam  venisse  is  in  the  indirect  dis- 
course ;  in  the  direc^  i.  e.,  in  the  original  words  of  those  who  made  the  statement,  it 
would  be  :  Plato  in  Italiam  venit. 

2  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  animi  sunt  diving  (2) 
Plato  Tarentum  venit^  (8)  mlror^  and  (4)  annulum  med  manu  confeei.  Observe  that 
the  pronominal  subjects  implied  in  mlror  and  cbnfecl  are  expressed  with  the  Infinitive, 
as  mxrari  «e,  se  cbnfecisse.  But  the  subject  is  sometimes  omitted  when  it  can  be  read- 
ily supplied;  see  second  example  under  II.,  2,  below. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


297 


Pythia  praecepit  ut  Miltiadem  imperatorem  stimerent;  incepta  prospera  futura, 
Pythia  commanded  that  they  should  take  Miltiades  as  tlieir  commander^  (telling 
them)  that  their  efforts  would  he  succes^ul.  Nep. 


II.  When  Interrogative,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive : 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sibi  vellet,  cur  veniret,'  to  the 
demands  of  Caesar  he  replied^  what  did  he  wish^  ivhy  did  he  come  ?   Caes. 

Note.— Deliberative  questions  retain  the  Subjunctive  from  the  direct  discourse: 
In  spem  venerat  se  posse,  etc. ;  cur  fortunam  periclitaretur,i  he  hoped  (had  come 
into  hope)  that  he  was  ahle^  etc. ;  why  should  he  try  fortune  ?  Caes. 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Suhject  Accusative^ 
as  in  rhetorical  questions :  * 

Docebant  rem  esse  testimonio,  etc. ;  quid  esse  levius,  etc.,  they  showed 
that  the  fact  was  a  proof  (for  a  proof),  etc. ;  what  loas  more  inconsiderate^ 
etc.  ?  Caes.  Respondit,  num  memoriam  deponere  pOsse,^  he  replied^  could 
he  lay  a^ide  the  recollection  ?   Caes. 

III.  When  Imperative/  they  take  the  Siibjunctive : 

Scribit  Labieno  cum  legione  veniat,  he  lorites  to  Lahienus  to  come  (that 
he  should  come)  with  a  legion.  Caes.  Redditur  responsum,  castris  se 
tenerent,  the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  iri  camp. 
Liv.  Mllites  certiores  facit,  se  reficerent,  he  directed  tlie  soldiers  to  refresh 
themselves.  Caes.  Orabant  ut  sibi  auxilium  ferret,  they  prayed  that  he 
would  bring  tJiem  Jielp.  Caes.  Nuntius  venit,  ne  dubitaret,  a  message  came 
that  lie  should  not  hesitate.  Nep.  CohortStus  est,  ne  perturbarentur,^  lie 
exhorted  them  not  to  he  alarmed.  Caes. 

Note.— An  affirmative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  without  ut^  except  after  verbs 
ot  wishing  and  asking,  but  a  negative  command  takes  the  Subjunctive  with  ne  ;  see  ex- 
amples. 

1  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  quid  tihixist  cUr  venlsf 
and  (2)  ciir  perlcliter  t 

3  A  question  used  for  rhetorical  effect  in  pla«e  of  an  assertion  is  called  a  Rhetorical 
Question,  as  num  potest,  '  can  he  ? '  =  non  potest, '  he  can  not ' ;  quid  est  turpius, '  what 
is  baser? '  =  nihil  est  turpius, '  nothing  is  baser.'  Here  belong  many  questions  which  in 
the  direct  form  have  the  verb  in  the  first  or  in  the  third  person.  As  such  questions  are 
equivalent  to  declarative  sentences,  they  take  the  same  construction,  the  Infinitive  with 

its  subject. 

3  Direct  discourse— (1)  quid  est  levius  — nihil  est  lemus,  and  (2)  num  memoriam 
deponere  possuTn  =  memoriam  deponere  non  possum. 

*  Imperative  sentences  include  those  sentences  which  take  the  Subjunctive  of  De- 
eire;  see  484. 

6  In  the  direct  discourse  these  examples  would  read— (1)  cum  legione  Denl,  (2)  cas- 
tris vos  tenite,  (3)  vos  reficite,  (4)  nohls  auKilium  fer^  (5)  n<)ll  dubitdre,  and  (6)  ne 
pertUrhdtl  sltis. 


298 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE, 


RUXE  lilV.— Moods  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

524.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse 
on  becoming  Indirect  take  the  Subjunctive  : 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Nervils  fecisset  facturum,^  lie  replied  that  he 
loould  do  xohat  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii.  Caes.  Ilippias  glGria- 
tus  est,  annulum  quem  haberet  se  sua  manu  confecisse,^  Ilippias  boasted 
that  he  had  made  with  his  own  hand  the  ring  which  he  wore,  Cic. 

1.  The  Infinitive  with  Suhject  Accusative  is  sometimes  used.     Thus — 

1)  In  clauses  introduced  by  the  relative  pronoun,  or  by  relative  adverbs, 
uU^  unde^  qudre^  etc.,  when  they  have  the  force  of  principal  clauses  (453) : 

Ad  cum  defertur,  esse  civem  Romanum  qui  quercretur,  quem  {=  et  eum) 
asservatuin  esse,  it  was  reported  to  him  that  there  teas  a  Roman  citizen  loho 
made  a  complaint^  and  that  he  had  been  placed  under  guard.  Cic.  Te  suspi- 
cor  elsdem,  quibus  mO  ipsum,  commovCri,  I  suspect  that  you  are  moved  by  the 
same  things  as  I,   Cic. 

2)  In  clauses  introduced  by  cum,,  quam,  quamquam,  quia,  and  some  other 
conjunctions,  especially  in  Livy  and  Tacitus : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spohe  more  threateningly  than  he  icould  have  acted?  Cic.  Di- 
cit,  se  moenibus  inclusos  tenOre  eos,  quia  per  agros  vagarl,  he  says  that  he 
keeps  them  shut  "up  within  the  walls,  because  (otherwise)  tliey  would  wander 
through  the  fields,   Li  v.     See  also  535,  I.,  5  and  6. 

2.  The  Indicative  is  uBcd — 

1)  In  parenthetical  and  explanatory  clauses  introduced  into  the  Indirect 
Discourse  without  strictly  forming  a  part  of  it : 

Referunt  silvam  esse,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis,^  they  report  that  there  is  a 
forest  which  is  called  Bacenis.  Caes.  Audio  Gelliuni  philosophos  qui  tunc 
erants  convocasse,  I  hear  that  Gellius  called  togethei'  the  philosophers  of  that 
day  (lit.,  who  then  were),  Cic. 

2)  Sometimes  in  clauses  not  parenthetical,  to  give  prominence  to  the  fact 
stated,  especially  in  relative  and  temporal  clauses : 

Certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vici,  quam  Gallis  concesserat,  omnes  discCs- 
sisse,  he  was  informed  that  all  had  withdrawn  from  that  'part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  assigned  to  the  Gauls.  Caes.  Dicunt  ilium  diem  clarissimum 
fuisse  cum  domum  reductus  est  a  patribus,  they  say  that  the  day  when  he  ivas 
conducted  home  by  the  fathers  was  the  most  illustrious.   Cic. 

525.  Tenses  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  generally  conform 
to  the  ordinary  rules  for  the  use  of  tenses  in  the  Subjunctive  and 
Infinitive ;  *  but  notice  the  following  special  points : 

*  Direct,  faciam  id  quod  in  Nerxilsfecl, 
^  Direct,  annulwin  quem  haheO  med  manu  confecl, 

5  These  clauses,  quae  appellatur  Bacenis  and  qui  tunc  erant^  are  not  strictly  parts 
of  the  general  report,  but  explanations  added  by  the  narrator. 
<  See  490-496  and  537. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE, 


299 


1.  The  Present  and  Perfect  may  be  used  even  after  an  historical  tense, 
to  impart  a  more  lively  effect  to  the  narrative : 

Caesar  respondit,  si  obsides  sib!  dentur,  sese  pacem  esse  facturum,  Caesar 
replied,  that  if  hostages  should  be  given  him,  he  ivoiild  make  peace.  Caes.  Ex- 
itus  fuit  orationis,  neque  ullos  vacare  agros,  qui  darl  possint,  the  close  of  the 
oration  was,  that  there  were  (are)  not  any  lands  unoccupied  which  could  (can) 
be  given.    Caes. 

2.  The  Future  Perfect  in  a  subordinate  clause  of  the  direct  discourse 
is  changed  in  the  indirect  into  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  after  a  principal 
tense,  and  into  the  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  after  an  historical  tense: 

Agunt  ut  dimicent ;  ibi  imperium  fore,  unde  victoria  fuerit,  they  arrange 
that  they  shall  fight ;  that  the  sovereignty  shall  be  on  the  side  which  shall  win 
the  victory  (whence  the  victory  may  have  been).  Liv.  Apparebat  regnaturum 
qui  vicisset,*  it  was  evident  that  he  ivould  be  king  who  should  conquer.   Liv. 

Note. — For  Tenses  in  Conditional  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse,  see  537. 

Pronouns  and  Persons  in  Indirect  Discourse, 

526.  In  passing  from  the  Direct  Discourse  to  the  Indirect, 

pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  are  generally  changed  to 

pronouns  of  the  third  person,^  and  the  first  and  second  persons  of 

verbs  are  generally  changed  to  the  third  person  : 

GlOriatus  est,  annulum  se  sua  manu  confGcisse,^  he  boasted  that  he  had  made 
the  ring  with  his  own  hand.  Cic.  Redditur  responsum,  castrls  se  tenerent,* 
the  reply  was  returned  that  they  should  keep  themselves  in  camp.  Liv.  Ee- 
spondit,  si  obsides  ab  iis  sib!  dentur,  sese  cum  ils  pacem  esse  facturum,^  he 
replied  that  if  Iwstages  should  be  given  to  him  by  them,  he  would  make  peace 
with  them.    Caes. 

Conditio7ial  Sentences  in  Indirect  Discourse. 

527.  Conditional  sentences,  in  passing  from  the  Direct  Dis- 
course to  the  Indirect,  undergo  the  following  changes : 

1  In  the  direct  discourse— (1)  ibl  imperium  erit,  unde  t'lctoria  fuerit,  and  (2)  reg- 
ndbit  qui  mcerit. 

2  Thus— (1)  ^Qo  Is  changed  to  sul^  sib\  etc.,  or  to  ipse ;  mens  and  noster  to  suits  ;  (2) 
til  to  is  or  ille^  sometimes  to  sui,  etc. ;  tuus  and  tester  to  suus  or  to  the  Genitive  of  is ; 
and  \^)  hie  and  iste  to  ille.  But  the  pronoun  of  the  first  person  may  of  course  be  used 
In  the  indirect  discourse  in  reference  to  the  reporter  or  author^  and  the  pronoun  of  the 
second  person  in  reference  to  the  person  addressed  :  Adfirmavi  quidvis  me  perpessu- 
rum,  /  asserted  that  I  would  endure  anything.  Cic.  Respondeo  te  dolorem  ferre  mode- 
rate, I  reply  that  you  hear  the  affliction  with  moderation.  Cic. 

3  Direct,  annulum  ego  med  manu  confeci.    Ego  becomes  se,  and  med,  sud, 
*  Direct,  castris  tos  tenete.     Vos  becomes  «(?,  and  tenete^  t&nerent. 

6  Direct,  si  obsides  d  vobls  mihl  dabuntur^  'coblscum  pacem  faciam,  A  vbbls 
becomes  ab  ils;  miJd  becomes  sibl;  voblscum,  cum  its;  and  the  implied  subject  of 
faciam  becomes  sese,  the  subject  of  esse  facturum. 


300 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE, 


I.  In  the  First  Form,  the  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Subjunctive  in  the 
condition  and  to  the  Infinitive  in  the  conclusion : 

Kespondit,  si  quid  Caesar  se  velit,  ilium  ad  86  venire  oportere,»  he  rqflied^ 
if  Caesar  ivished  anything  of  him^  he  ought  to  come  to  him.    Caes. 

Note. — In  all  forms  of  conditional  sentences  the  conclusion,  when  imperative^  and 
generally  when  interrogative^  takes  the  Subjunctive  according  to  633 : 

Responderunt,  si  non  aequum  existimaret,  etc.,  cur  postularct,^  etc.,  ihe^/  replied^  if 
he  did  not  think  it  fair^  etc.,  ichy  did  he  demand^  etc.  Caes.  Eum  certiorem  fecc- 
runt,  81  suas  res  mancre  vellet,  Alcibiadem  persequeretur,^  they  informed  him  that  if 
he  wished  his  institutions  to  he  permanent^  he  should  take  measures  against  Alci- 
biades.  Nep.  Die  quidnam  facturus  fueris,  si  censor  fuisses,*  say  what  you  would 
have  done^  if  you  had  been  censor.  Li  v. 

II.  In  the  Second  Form,  the  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  the  con- 
dition remains  unchanged  after  a  principal  tense,  but  may  be  changed  ^  to 
the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  and  in  the  conclu- 
sion it  is  changed  to  the  Future  Infinitive : 

Kespondit,  si  stipendium  remittitur,  libenter  scse  recusaturum  popull 
Roman!  araicitiam,*  he  replied  that  if  the  tribute  should  be  remitted^  he  would 
gladly  renounce  the  friendship  of  the  Roman  people,   Caes. 

Note. — See  note  under  I. 

III.  In  the  Third  Form,  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  remains 
unchanged  in  the  condition,  regardless  of  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  in  the  conclusion  it  is  changed  to  the  Periphrastic  Infinitive  in  -ru>s 
fuissey  rarely  to  that  in  -7'us  esse: 

Eespondit,  si  quid  ipsi  a  Caesare  opus  essct,  scse  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse,^ 
h^  replied  that  if  he  wanted  anything  of  Caesar,  he  would  have  come  to  him, 
Caes.  Clamitabat,  si  ille  adesset,  ventures  esse,^  he  cried  out  that  they  would 
come  if  he  were  present.   Caes. 

Note  1. — In  the  conclusion,  the  periphrastic  form  fuiurum  fuisse  ut  with  the  Sub- 
junctive is  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  and  sometimes  in  the  Active: 

Nisi  niintil  essent  allatl,  existimabant  futurum  fuisse  ut  oppidum  amitteretur,^  they, 
thought  that  the  town  would  have  been  lost^  if  tidings  had  not  been  brought.  Caes. 

Note  2.— In  conditional  sentences  with  the  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in 
the  condition,  and  with  an  historical  tense  of  the  Indicative  in  the  conclusion— 

>  Direct,  si  quid  Caesar  me  vult,  ilium  ad  mi,  venire  oportet.  For  change  of  pro- 
nouns see  6/J6,  and  for  the  tense  of  velit  see  626, 1. 

2  Direct,  si  non  aequum  exlstimds,  cur  postulds  f 

3  Direct,  si  tuds  res  manere  vis,  Alcibiadem  persequere.  Notice  change  in  the 
pronoun  and  in  the  person  of  the  verb;  see  526. 

*  Direct,  quidnam  fecisses  (or  fact firusfutstl),  si  censor fuisses. 

*  But  is  often  retained  unchanged  according  to  55J5,  1. 

*  Direct,  si  stlpendium  remittdtur,  libenter  recHsem  popull  Romdnl  amicitiam, 
or  si  stipend ium  remittitur,  libenter  recti sdbo  popull  Romdnl  amlcitiam.  Observe 
that  these  two  forms  become  identical  in  the  indirect  discourse. 

^  Direct— (1)  »1  quid  mihi  d  Caesare  opus  esset,  ad  eum  venissem;  (2)  el  ille 
adesset,  venlrent;  and  (3)  nisi  niintil  essent  alldtl,  oppidum  dmissum  esset. 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES. 


301 


1)  The  Indicative  is  generally  changed  to  the  Perfect  Infinitive  : 

Memento  istam  dignitatem  to  non  potuisse  consequi,  nisi  meis  consiliis  paniisses,* 
remember  that  you  would  not  have  been  able  to  attain  that  dignity,  if  you  had  not 
followed  my  counsels.  Cic. 

2)  The  Indicative  is  changed  to  the  Perfect  Subjunctive  if  the  context  requires  that 
mood: 

Quis  dubitat  quin  si  Saguntinis  tulissemus  operam,  avers&ri  bellum  fuerimus,*  w/io 
doubts  that  we  should  have  a/verted  the  war^  if  we  had  carried  aid  to  the  Sagun- 
tines  f  Liv.  Scimus  quid,  si  vixisset,  factiirus  fuerit,i  we  know  what  he  would  have 
done,  if  he  had  lived.  Liv. 

Indirect  Clauses. 

528.  The  indirect  discourse  in  its  widest  application  includes — 

1.  Subordinate  clauses  containing  statements  made  on  the  authority  of 
any  other  person  than  the  writer ;  see  516 : 

Omnes  libros  quos  frater  suus  reliquisset  mihi  d5navit,  he  gave  to  me  all 
the  books  which  his  brother  had  left.^  Cic. 

2.  Indirect  questions ;  see  529,  I. 

Note. — A.  clause  which  involves  a  question  without  directly  asking  it  is  called  an  In- 
direct or  Dependent  Question : 

Quaesivit  salvusne  esset  clipeus,  he  asked  whether  his  shield  was  safe.^  Cic. 

3.  Many  subordinate  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a 
Subjunctive ;  see  529,  II. 

RULE  LY«— Moods  in  Indirect  Clauses. 

529.  The  Subjunctive  is  used — 
I.  In  indirect  questions : 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question,  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree.  Cic.  Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked 
whether  I  did  not  think,  Cic.  Qualis  sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  tlie  soul 
knows  not  what  the  soul  is.  Cic.  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  ichat  a  day 
will  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic.  Quaeritur  quid  futurum  sit,  what  will 
be,  is  the  question,  Cic.  Quaerit  quinam  eventus,  si  foret  bellatum,  futurus 
f  uerit,  he  asks  what  would  have  been  the  rcs7ilt  if  war  had  been  ivaged.  Liv. 
Dubito  num  debeam,  I  doubt  whether  I  ought.  Plin.  Incerta  feror  si  Jup- 
piter  velit,  /  am  rendered  uncertain  whether  Jupiter  ivishes.  Verg.  Ut  te 
oblectes  scire  cupio,  /  loish  to  know  how  you  amuse  yourself   Cic.     Difficile 

1  Direct — (1)  istam  dignitatem  consequi  non  potulstl,  nisi  mels  ccnsilils  pdruis- 
sts;  (2)  si  Saguntinis  tulissemus  operam,  bellum  dversUrl  fuimus ;  (8)  quid,  si 
vixisset,  facturus  fuit  t 

2  That  is,  which  he  said  his  brother  had  left. 

3  Here  no  question  is  directly  asked.  We  have  simply  the  statement,  *he  asked 
whether  his  shield  was  safe,*  but  this  statement  involves  the  question,  salvusne  est 
clipeus,  Ms  my  shield  safe?* 


303 


INDIRECT  CLAUSES. 


dictii  est  utrum  timuerint  an  dllexerint,  it  is  difficult  to  say  lohciher  they 
feared  or  loved.    Cic. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or 
upon  another  Subjunctive : 

Nihil  indlgnius  est  quam  eiim  qiiT  culpa  careat  siipplicio  non  carero, 
nothing  is  more  shameful  than  that  he  who  is  free  f'om  fault  shoidd  not  be 
exempt  from  punishment.  Cic.  Utrum  difficilius  esset  negare  tibi  an  ef- 
licere  id  quod  rogdres  diu  dubitavT,  whether  it  ivould  be  more  difficult  to  re- 
fuse your  request  or  to  do  that  xehich  you  ask,  /  have  long  doubted.  Cic. 
Recordatione  nostrae  amicitiae  sic  fruor  ut  bcate  vixissc  videar  quia  cum 
ScIpiOne  vlxerhn^  I  so  enjoy  the  recollection,  of  our  fnendship  that  I  seem  to 
have  lived  happily  because  I  have  lived  ivith  Scipio.  Cic.  Naevium  rogat 
ut  curet  quod  dixisset^  he  asked  Kaevius  to  attend  to  that  which  he  had  men- 
tioned. Cic.  Yereor  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  laborera,  augeara,  I  fear  that, 
while  I  WISH  to  diminish  the  labor ^  I  shall  increase  it.    Cic. 

Note  1. — In  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  a  Subjunctive,  observe — 

1)  That  the  Subjunctive  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  essential  to  the  general 
tJiought  of  the  sentence,  as  in  the  examples  just  given. 

2)  That  the  Indicative  is  used  when  the  clauses  are  in  a  measure  parenthetical^  and 
when  they  give  special  prominence  to  the/ac^  stated : 

Milites  misit,  ut  eos  qui  luge  rant  persequerentur,  Jie  sent  soldiers  to  purstie  ihone 
icho  had  fled  (i.  e.,  the  ftigitives).  Caes.  Tanta  vis  probitatis  est,  ut  eam,  vel  in  ils  quOs 
nunquara  vidimus,  dlligamus,  HXicli  is  the  force  of  integrity  that  we  love  it  even  in  those 
whom  we  have  never  seen.  Cic. 

Note  2. — In  clauses  introduced  by  dum.,  the  Indicative  is  very  common,  especially  in 
the  poets  and  historians : 

Fuere  qui,  dum  dubitat  Scaevinus,  hortarentur  PTsonem,  there  were  those  who  ex- 
horted  Piso^  while  Scaevinus  hesitated.  Tac.    See  also  467,  4. 

1.  Indirect  or  dependent  questions^  like  those  not  dependent  (351,  1),  are 
introduced  by  interrogative  pronouns  or  other  interrogative  words,  as  quiff^ 
qui.,  qudlis.,  etc. ,  quid.,  cur.,  ne^  nonne,  7ium  ;  rarely  by  sl^  *\vliether,'  and  ut, 
*  how ' ;  see  examples  above. 

Note  l.—Sl  is  soTnetimcs  best  rendered  to  see  whether,  to  see  if,  to  try  if,  etc. . 
Te  adeunt,  si  quid  veils,  they  come  to  you  to  see  whether  you  wish  anything.  Cic. 
Note  2. — In  the  poets  si  is  sometimes  similarly  used  with  the  Indicative  : 
Tnspice  si  possum  donata  reponero,  examine  me  to  see  whether  I  am  able  to  restore 
your  gifts.  Hor. 

Note  3. — In  indirect  questions  num  does  not  necessarily  imply  negation 
Note  4. — An  indirect  question  may  readily  bo  changed  to  a  direct  or  independ- 
ent question.^ 

2.  An  Accusative,  referring  to  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  subject  of  the 
question,  is  sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  inserted  after  the  principal  verb : 

1  Thus  the  direct  question  involved  in  the  first  example  is,  cur  dvctissiml  homines 
dissentiunt,  *  why  do  the  most  learned  men  disagree?'  In  the  second,  ticnne  putds^ 
'  do  you  not  think  ?  ■• 


INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 


303 


Ego  ilium  nescio  qui  fuerit,  /  do  ?iot  hnovo  (him)  ivho  he  was,  Ter.  Die 
horainem  qui  sit,  tell  who  the  man  is.    Plaut. 

3.  Indirect  double  questions  are  generally  introduced  by  the  same  inter- 
rogative particles  as  those  which  are  direct  (353).     Thus — 

1)  They  generally  take  utrum  or  -ne  in  the  first  member  and  an  in  the 
second : 

Quaeritur  virtQs  suamne  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructus  aliquOs  ex- 
pctatur,  it  is  asked  whether  vi?'tue  is  sought  for  Its  own  tvorth^  or  for  certain  ad- 
vantages.   Cic. 

2)  But  they  sometimes  omit  the  particle  in  the  first  member,  and  take  in 
the  second  an  or  -ne  in  the  sense  of  or,  and  n€c?ie  or  an  non  in  the  sense  of 
or  not  : 

Quaeritur  natura  an  dOctrlna  possit  cffici  virtus,  it  is  ashed  whether  virtue 
can  he  secured  by  nature.,  or  by  education.  Cic.  Sapientia  beatos  elficiat  necne 
quaestio  est,  ichether  or  not  ivisdom  makes  men  happy  is  a  question.   Cic. 

Note  1.— Other  forms,  as  -ne  .  .  .  -ne,  an  .  .  .  an,  are  rare  or  poetic: 

Qui  teneant,  homincsne  fcraenc,  quaerere,  to  ascertain  who  inhabit  them,  whether 
men  or  beasts.  Vorg. 

Note  2. — Aji,  in  the  sense  oi  whether  not,  implying  an  aflSrmative,  is  used  after  verbs 
and  expressions  of  doubt  and  uncertainty :  dubito  an,  nesciO  an,  hand  scid  an, '  I  doubt 
whether  not,' '  I  know  not  whether  nof  =  '  1  am  inclined  to  think';  dubium  est  an,  in- 
certum  est  an, '  it  is  uncertain  whether  not '  =  '  it  is  probable ' : 

Dubito  an  Thrasybulum  prlmum  omnium  ponam,  /  doubt  whether  I  should  not 
place  Thrasybidus  first  of  all  (i.  e.,  I  am  inclined  to  think  I  should).  Nep. 

Note  3. — An  sometimes  seems  to  have  the  force  ofaut: 

Cum  Simdnides,  an  quis  alius,i  polliceretur,  when  Simonides  or  some  other  one 
promised.  Cic. 

4.  The  Subjunctive  is  put  in  \\\q  periphrastic  form  in  the  indirect  ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  represents  o.  periphrastic  foi^n  in  the  direct  question,  and 
(2)  generally,  not  always,  when  it  represents  a  Future  Indicative ;  see  the 
fifth  and  sixth  examples  under  539,  I. 

5.  Indirect  Questions  must  be  carefully  distinguished — 

1)  From  clauses  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  or  relative  adverbs. 
These  always  have  an  antecedent  or  correlative  expressed  or  understood,  and 
are  never,  as  a  whole,  the  subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  while  indirect  ques- 
tions are  generally  so  used : 

Dicam  quod  sentio  {relative  clause).,  I  will  tell  that  ivhieh  (id  quod)  Ilhink.'^ 
Cic.  Dicam  quid  intellegam  {indirect  question^.,  I  will  tell  ivhat  I  know.  Cic. 
Quaeramus  ubi  maleficium  est,  let  us  seek  there  (ibi)  where  the  crime  is.   Cic. 

2)  From  direct  questions  and  exclamations : 


^  Some  critics  treat  an  quis  alius  as  a  direct  question  inserted  parenthetically :  or 
was  it  some  other  one  ? 

2  In  the  first  and  third  examples,  quod  sentio  and  ubl  .  .  .  est  are  not  questions,  but 
relative  clauses ;  id  is  understood  as  the  antecedent  of  quod,  and  ibi  as  the  antecedent 
or  correlative  of  t^M ;  but  in  the  second  example,  quid  intellegam  is,  &n  indirect  ques- 
tion and  the  object  of  dicam  :  I  will  tell  (what?)  ichat  I  know  (i.  e.,  will  answer  that 
question). 


304 


INDIRECT  DISCO  [TRjSB, 


Quid  agendum  est?  nescio,  tvkai  is  to  be  doner  I  know  7iotJ  Cic.  Vide  ! 
quam  conversa  res  est,  see/  7mw  changed  is  the  case.    Cic. 

3)  From  clauses  introduced  by  nesciS  quis^  quldam,^  'some  one,'  nescio 
quomodo  =  quodammodo^  '  in  some  way/  mlrum  quantum^  '  wonderfully 
much/  '  wonderfully/  etc.     These  take  the  Indicative  : 

Nescio  quid  animus  praesagit,3  the  mind  forebodes,  I  know  not  what.  Ter. 
Id  mlrum  quantum  profuit,  this  profited,  it  is  wonderful  how  much  (i.  e.  it 
wonderfully  profited).    Liv.  ' 

6.  Personal  Construction.— Instead  of  an  impersonal  verb  with  an  indirect 
question  as  subject,  the  personal  construction  is  sometimes  used,  as  follows : 

Perspiciuntur  quam  sint  leves,^  it  is  seen  how  inconstant  they  are/  Cic. 

7.  The  Indicative  in  Indirect  Questions  is  sometimes  used  in  early 
Latin  and  in  the  poets,  especially  in  Plautus  and  Terence  : 

Si  memorure  velim,  quam  fidoli  animO  ful,  possum,  if  I  should  icish  to 
mention  how  much  fidelity  I  showed,  lam  able,  Ter. 

530._  The  directions  already  given  for  converting  the  Direct  Dis- 
course, Oratio  Recta,  into  the  Indirect,  Oratio  Ohhqua,  are  further  illus- 
trated  in  the  following  passage  from  Caesar : 

Direct  Discourse.  iNDmEcx  Discourse. 
Caesarem  obsecrare  coepit:   *  Ne          Caesarem  obsecnire  coepit,  ne  quid 
quidgravius  in  fratrem  statuerls  ;  scio  gravius  in  friitrem  statueret;  scire  se 
ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quisquam  ex  eo  ilia  esse  vera,  nee  quemquam  ex  e6 
plus  quam  ego  doloris  capit,  propterea  plus  quam  se  doloris  capere,  proptcrea 
quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi  quod  cum  ipse  gratia  plurimum  domi 
atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum  atque  in  reliqua  Gallia,  ille  minimum 
propter  adulescentiam  poterat,  per  me  propter  adulGscentiam  posset,  per  se 
crevit  /  quibus  opibus  ac  nervis  non  crevisset ;    quibus   opibus    ac  nervis 
solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam,   sed  non  solum  ad  minuendam  gratiam, 
paene  ad   pemiciem   meam  idUur  ;  sed  paene  ad  pernicicm  suam  ntere'- 
ego  tamen  et  amore  fraternO  et  exis-  tiir  ;  sesl  tamen  et  amore  fraterno  et 
timatione  vulgi  commoveor.     Quod  si  existimatione  vulgl  commoverl.   Quod 
quid  ei  a  te  gravius  acciderit,  cum  si  quid  el  a  Caesare  gravius  accidisset, 
ipse   hunc  locum  amicitiae    apud  te  cum  ipse  eum  locum  amicitiae  apud 
teneam,  nemS  exlstimdbit,  non  med  eum  terieret,  neminem  exUtimdturum, 
voluntate  factum ;   qua  ex  re  tot!us  non  sua  voluntate  factum ;  qua  ex  rl 
Galliae  animi  a  me  dvertentur.'  futurum  uti  totlus  Galliae  animi  a  se 
o^eHerentur,   Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  2p. 

»  Quid  agendum  sit  nescio, '  I  know  not  what  is  to  be  done;  would  bo  an  hidi^ 
question. 

2  See  191,  note. 

3  Praesagit  does  not  depend  upon  nesciO,  but  is  entirely  Independent.  Kescio  quid 
animus praeedgiat  would  be  an  indirect  question,  and  would  mean,  /  know  not  what 
the  mind  forebodes. 

4  Lit,  they  are  seen.  Observe  that  this  personal  construction  corresponds  to  the 
Active,  perspiciunt  eos  quam  siiit  leves, '  they  perceive  (them)  how  inconstant  they  are.' 
See  also  ego  ilium  nescio  qui  fuerit,  529,  2. 


INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 


305 


NoTE.~In  this  illustration  observe  the  following  points: 

1)  That  the  Indicative  in  the  principal  clauses  of  the  direct  discourse  is  changed  to 
the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Lnjinitive  in  the  indirect,i  and  that  the  Subjunctive,  sta- 
tuerls, denoting  incomplete  action,  is  changed  to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive  after  the 
historical  tense,  coepit. 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  verbs  denoting  incomplete  action  are  changed 
to  the  Imperfect  Subjunctive,  while  those  denoting  completed  action  are  changed  to  the 
Pluperfect  Subjunctive.» 

8)  That  scio  becomes  scire  se  (I.  e.,  that  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  generally  ex- 
pressed). 

4)  That  the  pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  changed  to  reflexives;  and  that  those  of 
the  second  person  are  changed  to  is.^ 

531.  The  process  by  which  the  Indirect  Discourse,  Oratio  Ohllqua, 
is  changed  to  the  Direct,  Oratio  Reda^  is  illustrated  in  the  following  pas- 
sages from  Caesar : 

Indirect  Discoxtrse.  Direct  Discourse. 

Eespondit,  trdnsisse  Khenum  sese  Respondit:  '  TrdnsiiB.henumnon 

non  sua  sponte,  sed  rogdtum  et  aires-  med  sponte,  sed  rogdtus  et  arcessltus 

sltum  a  Gallis.    S'e  prius  in  Galliam  a  Gallls.    Ego  prius  in  Galliam  'veni 

venisse    quam   populum    Romdnum.  quam  populus  Romdnus.    Quid  tiU 

Quid  siblvellet.^    Cur  in  ^i^^w  posses-  vis.^    Cur  in  meds  ^ossessiones  ve- 

siones  xenlretf  Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  44.  nlsf' 

Ita  respondit,  eo  sibl  minus  dubi-  Ita   respondit :    '  Eo  mihi  minus 

tationis  darl  quod  eas  res  quas  legatl  dubitationis  datur  quod  eas  res  quas 

Helvetii  commemordssent  memoria  te-  ms,  legatl  Helvetil,  commemordvUtis, 

neret.  Quod  si  veteris  contumeliae  ob-  memoria  teneo.    Quod  si  veteris  con- 

llviscl  vellet,  num  etiam  recentium  in-  tumeliae  oblivisci  mlo^  num  etiam  re- 

juriarum  memoriam  depOnere  posset  centium   injuriarum   memoriam  de- 

Cum  ea  ita  sint,  tamen,  si  obsides  ab  ^onerQ  possum  .^    Cum  haec  ita  sint, 

iis  sibl  dentur,  sese  cum  its  pacem  esse  tamen,  si  obsides  a  wbls  mihi  dabun- 

facturum.   Caes.,  B.  G.,  I.,  14.  tur,  w5w?cum  pacem /«ci'am.' 

Note.— In  these  illustrations  observe  the  following  points : 

1)  That  in  the  principal  clauses  (1)  the  Infinitives  with  se,  or  sem^  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, are  changed  to  the  first  person  of  the  Indicative  ;  *  (2)  other  Infinitives  are 
also  changed  to  the  Indicative,  but  the  person  is  determined  by  the  context;  «  and  (3) 

1  Thus  scio  becomes  scire;  capit,  capere;  commoveor,  commoverl ;  exlstimdbit^ 
exlstimdturum  {esse) ;  and  dvertentur,  futurum  utl  dverterentur.  This  last  form, 
futurum  utl  dverterentur,  is  the  Periphrastic  Future  Infinitive  Passive;  see  537,  3. 

2  ThMi  poter at  hQcomes  posset ;  utitur,  uteretur;  teneam,  teneret;  hut  crevit  be- 
comes crevisset;  acciderit,  accidisset. 

3  Thus  (1)  ego  is  changed  to  se;  me  to  se;  meam  to  suam;  med  to  sua;  and  (2) 
te  to  cum  ;  hunc  to  eum. 

*  Thus  trdnsisse  sese  is  changed  to  trdnsil;  se  venisse  to  ego  venl;  sese  esse  fac- 
turum to  faciam;  posse,  with  se  understood,  to  possum. 

5  Thus  minus  darl  becomes  minus  datur;  but  if  the  subject  of  the  Infinitive  is  of 
the  second  person,  the  Indicative  will  also  be  of  that  person.  Responded  te  dolorem 
ferre moderate  thua  becomes  responded,  ''dolorem  moderate  fers;''  see  p.  299,  foot- 
Tiote  2. 


306 


INFINITIVE. 


Subjunctives  are  changed  to  the  Indicative  after  interrogative  words,!  and  to  the  Im- 
perative in  other  situations.'-^ 

2)  That  in  the  subordinate  clauses  the  Subjunctive,  unless  required  by  the  thought 
irrespective  of  the  indirect  discourse,  is  changed  to  the  Indicative.^ 

3)  That  the  reflexive  pronouns  8ul,  aibl,  etc.,  and  sm^s  are  changed  (1)  generally  to 
pronouns  of  the  first  person,  but  (2)  sometimes  to  those  of  the  second  person.-» 

4)  That  is  and  ille  are  (1)  generally  changed  to  til  or  hie,  but  (2)  sometimes  retained.^ 

5)  That  a  noun  referring  to  the  person  or  persons  addressed  may  be  put  in  the 
Vocative  preceded  by  tii  or  vds.^ 

SECTION    VII. 

INFINITIVE.— SUBSTANTIVE    CLAUSES. 

I.  Infinitive. 

532.  The  Infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun  with  special  character- 
istics. Like  verbs,  it  has  voice  and  tense,  takes  adverbial  modi- 
fiers, and  governs  oblique  cases.'' 

RXJIiE  li VI.— Infinitive. 

533.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or 
qualify  their  meaning : 

Audeo  dicere,  I  dare  say  (I  venture  to  say).  Cic.  Hacc  vltare  cupimus, 
we  desire  to  avoid  these  things.   Cic.     Constituit  non  progredl,  he  decided 

»  Thus  quid  vellet  Is  changed  to  quid  vis  f  cur  venlret  to  ciir  venls  f  Vellet  and 
venlret  are  in  the  Imperfect  simply  because  dependent  upon  an  historical  tense,  and  are 
therefore  changed  to  the  Present  in  the  direct  discourse.  In  deliberative  questions 
(484,  V.)  the  Subjunctive  is  retained  in  the  direct  discourse. 

a  Thus  cum.  legione  veniat,  under  523,  III.,  becomes  cum  legicme  venl.  The  Sub- 
junctive may  of  course  be  retained  in  the  direct  discourse  whenever  the  thought  requires 

that  mood. 

3  Thus  commemordssent,  pluperfect  after  an  historical  tense,  is  changed  to  com- 
memordv'istis  ;  teneret  to  teneo;  vellet  to  vol6;  dentur  to  dabuntur.  Sint  is  retained 
unchanged  because  required  in  a  causal  clause  with  cum ;  see  617. 

*  Thus  (1)  trdnslsse  seseis  changed  to  trdnsil,  with  subject  implied  in  the  ending; 
8tid  to  med;  se  venisse  to  ego  venl,  with  emphatic  subject ;  stids  to  meds;  sibi  to  miM; 
sese  esse  facturum  to/aciam  ;  (2)  sibi  to  tibi,  in  quid  sibi  vellet.  As  the  subject  of  an 
Infinitive  (636),  se  or  sese  often  corresponds  to  the  pronominal  subject  implied  in  the 
ending  of  a  finite  verb ;  see  p.  187,  foot-note  5. 

*  Thus  (1)  ab  its  is  changed  to  d  vobis;  cum  ils  to  vobiscum  ;  ea  ita  sint  to  haec 
ita  sint;  (2)  eds  res  is  retained. 

«  Thus  legatl  Helvetil,  the  subject  of  commemorassenf,  is  changed  to  vos,  legatl 

Helvetil, 

7  Originally  the  Latin  Infinitive  appears  to  have  been  the  Dative  case  of  an  abstract 
verbal  noun,  and  to  have  been  used  to  denote  the  jnir^pose  or  end  (384, 1,  3)  for  which 
anything  is  or  is  done.  Being  thus  only  loosely  connected  with  the  verb  of  the  sentence, 
it  readily  lost  its  special  force  as  a  case  and  soon  began  to  be  employed  with  considerable 
freedom  in  a  variety  of  constructions.    In  this  respect  the  history  of  the  Infinitive  resem- 


INFINITIVE, 


307 


not  to  advance,  Caes.  Credull  esse  coepcrunt,  they  began  to  he  credulous, 
Cic.  Vincere  scis,  you  know  hoio  to  conquer  (you  know  to  conquer).  Liv. 
Victoria  iiti  nescis,  you  do  not  know  how  to  use  victory.  Liv.  Latine  loqui 
didicerat,  he  had  learned  to  speak  Latin.  Sail.  Debes  hoc  rescribere  vou 
ought  to  write  this  in  reply.  Hor.  Nemo  mortem  effugere  potest,  no  one  is 
able  to  escape  death.  Cic.  Solent  cogitare,  they  are  accustomed  to  think.  Cic. 
I.  The  Infinitive  is  thus  used — 

1.  With  Transitive  Verbs  meaning  to  dare.,  desire^  determine;  to  begin, 
continue.,  end  ;  to  hnow^  learn  ;  to  owe.,  etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

Note  1.— For  the  Subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  498, 1.,  note. 
Note  2.— See  also  498,  II.,  note  1. 

2.  With  Intransitive  Verbs  meaning  to  be  able  ;  to  be  wont.,  be  accustomed, 
etc. ;  see  examples  above. 

II.  In  special  constructions  the  Infinitive  has  nearly  the  force  of  a 
Dative  of  Purpose  or  End — * 

1.  With  Intransitive  Verbs  : 

Non  populare  penates  venimus,  ice  have  not  come  to  lay  icaste  your  homes. 
Verg.  Conjuravere  patriam  incendere,  tJiey  conspired  to  d^troy  their  country 
with  fire.   Sail. 

2.  With  Transitive  Verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusative : 

Pecus  egit  altos  visere  montes,  he  drove  his  herd  to  visit  the  lofty  moun- 
tains. Hor.  Quid  habes  dicere,  what  have  you  to  say  ?  Cic.  Dederat  comam 
diflfundere  ventis,  she  had  given  her  hair  to  the  winds  to  scatter.  Verg.2 

3.  With  Adjectives  : 

Est  paratus  audirc,  he  is  prepared  to  hear  (for  hearing).  Cic.  Avidi  com- 
mittere  pugnam,  eager  to  engage  (for  engaging)  in  battle.  Ovid.  Funs  rivo 
dare  nOmen  idOneus,  a  fountain  fit  to  give  a  name  to  the  river.   Hor. 

Note  1. — This  use  of  the  Infinitive  is  mostly  poetical. 

Note  2.— With  adjectives  and  with  participles  used  as  adjectives  the  Infinitive  is 
rare  in  prose,  but  is  freely  used  in  poetry  in  a  variety  of  constructions : 

Cantare  peritus,  skilled  in  singing.  Verg.  Pelides  cedere  nesclus,  Pelides  not 
knowing  how  to  yield.  Hor.  Certa  mori,  determined  to  die.  Verg.  Dignus  descrlbl, 
worthy  to  be  described.  Hor.    Vitulus  niveus  videri,^  a  calf  snow-white  to  vietc.  Hor. 

bles  that  of  adverbs  from  the  oblique  cases  of  nouns.  As  such  adverbs  are  often  used 
with  greater  freedom  than  the  cases  which  they  represent,  so  the  Latin  Infinitive  often 
appears  in  connections  where,  as  a  Dative,  it  would  not  have  been  at  all  admissible. 
Upon  the  Origin  and  History  of  the  Indo-European  Infinitive,  see  Jolly, '  Geschichte 
des  Infinitivs.' 

1  In  these  constructions  the  Infinitive  retains  its  original  force  and  use;  see  53J5, 
foot-note. 

'^  In  these  examples  with  transitive  verbs  observe  that  the  Accusative  and  Infini- 
tive correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  Dative  under  384,  II.,  and  that  the  Acc'usative^ 
Dative,  and  Infinitive  correspond  to  the  Accusative  and  two  Datives  under  390,  IL 

'  Mveus  viderl,  like  the  Greek  Acu/cos  tfieV^at. 


308 


INFINITIVE. 


Piger  scrlbendl  fcrro  laborem,  reluctant  to  bear  the  labor  of  writing.  Hot.  Suum  of- 
ficium  facere  immemor  est,  he  forgets  (is  forgetful)  to  do  his  duty.  Plaut. 

Note  3.— The  Infinitive  also  occurs,  especially  in  poetry,  with  verbal  nouns  and  with 
such  expressions  as  tempus  est^  copia  est^  etc. : 

Cupido  Stygios  innare  lacus,  a  desire  to  sail  upon  the  Stygian  lakes.  Verg.  Qui- 
bus  molliter  vivere  copia  erat,  who  had  the  means  for  living  at  ease.  Sail.  Tempus  est 
dicere,  it  is  time  to  speak.  Cic. 

Note  4.— The  Infinitive  is  sometimes  used  with  prepositions : 

Multum  interest  inter  dare  et  accipere,  there  is  a  great  difference  between  giving 
and  receiving.  Sen. 

RULE  li VII,— Accusative  and  Infinitive. 

634.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative 
and  an  Infinitive : 

Te  sapere  docet,  7ie  teaches  you  to  be  wise.  Cic.  Eos  suum  adventum 
exspectare  jussit,  he  ordered  them  to  aicait  his  approach,  Gaes.  Pontem 
jubet  rescindl,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down.  Caes.  Te  tua  frul 
virtute  cupimus,  we  toish  you  to  enjoy  your  virtue.  Cic.  Sentimus  calere 
ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot  (we  perceive  fire  to  be  hot).  Cic.  Regem 
tradunt  se  abdidisse,  they  relate  that  the  king  concealed  hiinself}  Liv. 

Note. — In  the  compound  forms  of  the  Infinitive,  esse  is  often  omitted : 
Audivi  solitum  Fabricium,  /  have  heard  that  Fabricius  was  wont.  Cic.    Speramus 
vobis  profuturOs,  we  hope  to  benefit  you.  Cic. 

1.  The  corresponding  Passive  is  sometimes  personal  and  sometimes 
impersonal :  ' 

Personal. — Aristldes  justissimus  fuissc  traditur,  Aristides  is  said  (is  re- 
ported by  tradition)  to  have  been  tnost  just.  Cic.  Soleni  0  mundo  tollero  vi- 
dentur,  they  seem  to  remove  the  sun  from  the  world.  Cic.  Platonem  audlvisso 
dicitur,  he  is  said  to  have  heard  Plato.  Cic.  Dii  beati  esse  mtelleguntur, 
the  gods  are  unde7'stood  to  be  happy,   Cic. 

Impersonal. — Traditum  est  Ilomerum  caecum  fuissc,  it  has  been  reported 

1  Observe  that  in  the  first  three  examples  the  Accusatives  te^  eos^  and  pontem^  arc 
the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  while  in  the  other  examples  the  Accusatives  ti^  ig- 
nem^ and  regem^  may  be  explained  either  as  the  direct  objects  of  the  finite  verbs,  or  as 
the  subjects  of  the  Infinitives.  The  former  was  doubtless  the  original  construction,  but 
in  time  the  object  of  the  principal  verb  came  to  be  regarded  in  many  cases  as  the  subject 
of  the  Infinitive  depending  upon  it.  Thus  was  developed  the  Subject  Accusative  of  the 
Infinitive. 

2  These  two  constructions  correspond  to  the  two  interpretations  of  the  Active  men- 
tioned in  foot-note  1  above.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  Aristidem  just issi mum  fuisse  tra- 
dunt, if  Aristldem  is  regarded  as  the  object  of  tradunt,  according  to  the  original  concep- 
tion, the  corresponding  Passive  will  be  personal :  Aristides  justissimus  fuisse  traditur; 
but  if  Aristldem  is  regarded  as  the  subject  of  fuisse,  and  the  clause  Aristidem  justissi- 
mum  fuisse  as  the  object  of  tradunt.,  then  the  same  clause  will  become  the  subject  of  the 
Passive,  and  the  construction  will  be  impersonal:  Aristldem  justissimum  fuisse  tradi- 
tur^ *it  is  reported  by  tradition  that  Aristidcs  was  most  just.'' 


^ 


INFINITIVE. 


309 


by  tradition  that  Homer  was  blind,  Cic.  L^nam  partem  Gallos  obtinere  dic- 
tum est,  it  has  been  stated  tliat  the  Gauls  occupy  one  part.  Caes.  Nuntiatur 
esse  naves  in  portu,  it  is  announced  that  the  vessels  are  in  port,  Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Personal  Construction  is  used— (1)  regularly  in  jubeor^  vetor^  and 
videor ;  (2)  generally  in  the  simple  tenses  *  of  most  verbs  of  sating,  thinking,  and  the 
like,  as  dicor,  trddor,  feror,  nUntior,  credor,  exlstimor,  putor,  perhibeor^  etc. ;  (3) 
sometimes  in  other  verbs ;  see  examples  above. 

Note  2.— The  Impersonal  Construction  is  especially  common  in  the  compound 
tenses^^  though  also  used  in  the  simpleJenses ;  see  examples  above. 

535.  The  Accusative  and  an  Infinitive  are  used  with  a  great 

variety  of  verbs.     Thus — 

L  "With  verbs  of  Perceiving  and  Declaring  : 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot,  Cic.  Mihi  narravit  te 
solhcitura  esse,  he  told  me  that  you  were  troubled.  Cic.  Scripserunt  Themis- 
toclem  in  Asiam  transisse,  they  wrote  that  Themistocles  had  gone  over  to 
Asia,   Nep. 

1.  Verbs  of  Perceiving  include  those  which  involve  (1)  the  exercise  of 
the  senses :  audio^  video.,  sentio,  etc.,  and  (2)  the  exercise  of  the  mind— think- 
ing, BELIEVING,  KNOWING  I  cogito,  puto,  extstimo,  credo.,  spero—intellego^  scioj  etc. 

2.  Verbs  of  Declaring  are  such  as  state  or  communicate  facts  or  thoughts : 
dico,  ndrro,  nUntid,  doceo,  ostendo^  promitto,  etc. 

3.  Expressions  equivalent  to  verbs  of  perceiving  and  of  declaring^  asfdma 
/e7't,  'report  says,*  testis  sum,  'I  am  a  witness' =' I  testify,'  conscius  mihi 
sum.,  *  I  am  conscious,'  '  I  know,'  also  admit  an  Accusative  with  an  Infinitive : 

Nullam  mihi  relatam  esse  gratiam,  tu  es  testis,  you  are  a  witness  (can 
testify)  that  no  grateful  return  has  been  made  to  me,   Cic. 

4.  Participle  for  Infinitive.— Verbs  of  perceiving  take  the  Accusative 
with  the  present  participle,  when  the  object  is  to  be  represented  as  actually 
seen,  heard,  etc.,  while  engaged  in  a  given  action : 

Catonem  vid!  in  bibliotheca  sedentem,  /  saw  Cato  sitting  in  the  library, 

Cic. 

5.  Subjects  Compared.— When  two  subjects  with  the  same  predicate  are 
compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first  clause, 
the  Infinitive  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Platonem  ferunt  idem  sensisse  quod  Pythagoram,  they  say  that  Plato  held 
the  same  opinion  as  Pythagoras,   Cic. 

6.  Predicates  Compared.— When  two  predicates  with  the  same  subject 
are  compared,  and  the  Accusative  with  the  Infinitive  is  used  in  the  first 
clause,  the  Accusative  may  be  understood  in  the  second : 

Num  putatis,  dixisse  Antonium  minacius  quam  facturum  fuisse,  do  you 
think  Antony  spoke  more  threateningly  than  fie  would  have  acted?  Cic. 
NoTE.~But  the  second  clause  may  take  the  Subjunctive,  with  or  without  ut: 

1  The  learner  will  remember  that  the  simple  tenses  are  formed  simply  by  inflexional 
endings,  as  dlcitur,  dlcebatur,  but  that  the  compound  tenses  are  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  perfect  participle  with  the  verb  sum,  as  dictum  est,  dictum  erat,  etc. 


/  \ 


310 


IN  FIN  IT!  VE, 


Auded  dicero  ipsos  potius  cultores  agrrSrum  fore  quam  ut  coif  prohibeant,  /  dare  say 
that  they  will  themselves  become  tillers  of  the  Jields  rather  than  prevent  them  from 
being  tilled.  Jay. 

II.  With  verbs  of  Wishing,  Desiring,  Commanding,  and  their  op- 
posites :  ^ 

Te  tua  frul  virtute  cupimus,  ive  desire  that  you  should  enjoy  your  'virtue, 
Cic.  Pontem  jubet  rescind!,  he  orders  the  bridge  to  be  broken  down  (that  the 
bridge  should  be  broken  down).  Caes.  Lex  eum  necari  vetuit,  the  law  for- 
bade that  he  should  be  put  to  death.   Li  v. 

NoTE.-Several  verbs  involving  a  wish  or  command  admit  the  Subjunctive,  generally 
with  ut  or  ne;  see  498, 1 ;  ^  j 

OptO  ut  id  audiatis,  I  desire  that  you  may  hear  this.  Cic.  Volo  ut  respondeas  7 
ictsh  you  would  reply.  Cic.  MulO  to  hostis  metuat,  /  prefer  that  the  enemy  shoilld 
fear  you.  Cic.    Concede  ut  haec  apta  sint,  /admit  that  these  things  are  suitable.  Cic. 

in.  With  verbs  of  Emotion  and  Feeling  :  * 

GaudeO  t6  mihi  suadCre,  /  rejoice  that  you  advise  me.  Cic.  Miramur  te 
laetari,  we  wonder  that  you  rejoice.   Cic. 

Note.- Verbs  of  emotion  and  feeling  often  take  clauses  with  quod  (540  lY )  to 
give  prominence  to  ihefact  stated,  or  to  emphasize  the  ground  or  reason  for  the  feeling  • 

Gaudeo  quod  tc  interpellavl,  I  rejoice  that  (or  because)  I  have  interrupted  you.  Cic 
Dolcbam  quod  socium  amiseram,  I  was  grieving  because  I  had  lost  a  companion.  Cic. 

IV.  Sometimes,  especially  in  Poetry  and  in  Late  Prose,  with  verbs 
which  usually  take  the  Subjunctive : ' 

Gentem  hortor^amare  focos,  /  exhort  the  race  to  love  their  homes.  Ver^r 
Ciincti  suaserunt  Italiam  petere,  all  advised  to  seeJc  Italy.  Verg.     Soror  monet 
Buccedere  Lauso  Turnum,  the  sister  warns  Turnus  to  take  tlie  place  of  Lausus 
Verg. 

RUIiE  LVm.— Subject  of  InfiniUve. 

536.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as 
its  subject :  * 

Sentimus  calere  ignem,  we  perceive  that  fire  is  hot.  Cic.  Platonem 
Tarentum  venisse  reperio,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum,   Cic. 

1  As  cupio,  optO,  'void,  nolo,  malo,  etc.;  patior,  sinO;  impero,  JubeO :  prohibeO 
veto,  etc.  ' 

a  As  gaudeo,  doleo,  mlror,  queror,  etc. ;  also  aegrefero,  graviterferO  etc 

3  Many  verbs  in  Latin  thus  admit  two  or  more  different  constructions;  see  in  the 

dictionary  adigO,  censeo,  concede,  cogo,  constituo,  contendo,  cupio,  euro,  deeemo 

dico,  doceo,  elabbro,  enltor,faciO,  impedio,  impero,  jubeo,  laboro,  malo,  mando  mo- 

hor,  moneo,  nolo,  optO,  bro,  patior,  permitio,  persuadeo,  postulo,  praecipio,  prae- 

dicO,  prohibeo,  aino,  atatuO,  studeO,  suadeo,  veto,  video.    See  also  Draeffer   II    dd 
230-416.  *"^6^*t  *A.»  vv- 

^  Eemember  that  the  Infinitive,  as  a  verbal  noun,  originally  had  no  subject,  but  that 
subsequently  in  special  constructions  a  subject  Accusative  was  developed  out  of  the  ob- 
ject of  the  principal  verb;  see  534,  foot-note  1.  In  classioal  Latin  many  Infinitives  have 
no  subjects,  either  expressed  or  understood. 


r 


INFINITIVE. 


311 


1.  Historical  Infinitive. — In  lively  descriptions  the  Present  Injinitive  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  Imperfect  or  the  Perfect  Indicative.  It  is  then  called 
the  Historical  Infinitive,  and,  like  a  finite  verb,  has  its  subject  in  the  Nomina- 
tive : 

Catillna  in  prima  acie  versarl,  omnia  providere,  multum  ipse  pugnare, 
saepe  hostem  ferire,  Catiline  was  busy  in  the  front  line  ;  he  attended,  to  every- 
thing, fought  much  in  person,  and  often  smote  down  the  enemy. ^  Sail. 

Note. — The  Historical  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  customary  or  repeated  action  : 
Omnia  in  pejus  ruere  ac  retro  referri,  all  things  change  rapidly  for  the  icorse  and 
are  borne  backward.  Verg. 

2.  A  Predicate  Noun  or  a  Predicate  Adjective  after  an  Infinitive  agrees 
with  the  noun  or  pronoun  of  which  it  is  predicated,  according  to  the  general 
rule  (36JJ).     It  is  thus — 

1)  In  the  Nominative,  when  predicated  of  the  principal  subject: 

Nolo  esse  laudator,  I  am  unwilling  to  be  a  eulogist.  Cic.  Beatus  esse  sine 
virtute  nemo  potest,  no  one  can  be  happy  ivithout  virtue.  Cic.  Parens  did 
potest,  he  can  be  called  a  parent.  Cic. 

Note. — Participles  in  the  compound  tenses  agree  like  predicate  a^ectives  ; 
Pollicitus  esse  dicitur,  he  is  said  to  have  promised.  Cic 

2)  In  the  Accusative^  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Acci^sa- 
tive: 

Ego  me  Phldiam  esse  mallem,  /  should  prefer  to  be  Phidias.  Cic.  Tradi- 
tum  est,  Homerum  caecum  fuisse,^  it  has  been  Jianded  down  by  tradition  that 
Homer  was  blind.   Cic. 

3)  In  the  Dative.^  when  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative : 
Patricio  tribun6  plebis  fieri  non  licebat,  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  patrician 

to  be  made  tribune  of  the  people,  Cic.     Mihi  neglegenti  esse  non  licuit,^  it  was 
not  permitted  me  to  be  negligent.    Cic. 

Note. — A  noun  or  adjective  predicated  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  Dative  is  some- 
times put  in  the  Accusative : 

£i  consulem  fieri  licet,  it  is  lawful  for  him  to  be  made  consul.  Caes. 

537.  The  Tenses  op  the  Infinitive — Present,  Perfect,  and 
Future — denote  only  relative  time.  They  accordingly  represent  the 
time  respectively  as  present^  past,  or  future,  relatively  to  that  of 
the  principal  verb : 

Present. — Cupio  me  esse  clementem,  I  desire  to  be  mild.  Cic.  Maluit  se 
dlligl  quam  metui,  he  preferred  to  be  loved  leather  than  feared.   Nep. 

Perfect. — Platonem  ferunt  in  Italiam  venisse,  they  say  that  Plato  came 
into  Italy.  Cic.  Conscius  mihi  cram,  nihil  a  me  commissum  esse,  I  was  con- 
scious to  myself  that  no  offence  had  been  committed  by  me^   Cic. 

Future. — Brutum  visum  Iri  a  me  puto,  /  think  Brutus  ivill  be  seen  by  me, 

1  Historical  Infinitives  are  generally  used  in  groups,  seldom  singly. 

2  Hero  Phldiam  is  predicated  of  me  (lit.,  me  to  be  Phidias),  and  caecum  of  Ho- 
mer um. 

3  THbUno  \&\}ve^\CQ.iedi  of patricid,2in^  neglegenti  oi  mihi. 


312 


INFINITIVE, 


Cic.     Oruculum  datum  erat  victrlces  Athenas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given^ 
that  Athens  would  he  victorious,   Cic. 

Note.— In  general,  the  Present  Infinitive  represents  the  action  as  taking  place  at  the 
time  denoted  by  the  principal  verb,  the  Perfect  as  then  completed  or  iJ>a«<,  and  the  Fu- 
ture as  then  about  to  take  place;  but  tense  is  so  imperfectly  developed  in  the  Infinitive 
that  even  relative  time  is  not  marked  with  much  exactness.    Hence— 

1)  The  Present  is  sometimes  used  oi  future  actions,  and  sometimes  with  little  or  no 

reference  to  time : 

Cras  argentum  dare  dixit,  he  said  that  Tie  wotcld  give  the  silver  to-morrow.  Ter. 

2)  The  Perfect  is  sometimes  used  of  present  actions,  though  chiefly  in  the  poets: 
Tetigisse  timent  poetam,  they  fear  to  touch  (to  have  touched)  the  poet,  Hor. 

1.  After  the  past  tenses  of  d'eheQ^  oportet^  possurn,  and  the  like,  the  Pres- 
ent Infinitive  is  used  where  our  idiom  would  lead  us  to  expect  the  Perfect ; 
sometimes  also  after  meminl,  and  the  like ;  regularly  in  recalling  what  we 
have  ourselves  experienced : 

Debuit  officiosior  esse,  he  ought  to  have  been  more  attentive,  Cic.  Id  potuit 
facere,  he  might  have  done  this,  Cic.  Mc  Athgnis  audire  meinini,  I  remember 
to  have  heard  (hearing)  in  Athens,   Cic. 

2.  The  Perfect  Passive  Infinitive  sometimes  denotes  the  result  of  the  ac- 
tion. Thus,  doctus  esse  may  mean  either  to  have  been  instructed  or  to  be  a 
learned  man  (lit.,  an  instructed  man).  If  the  result  thus  denoted  belongs  to 
past  timQ^fidsse  must  take  the  place  of  esse: 

Populum  alloquitur,  sopltum  fuisse  regem  Ictu,  she  addresses  tlie  people^ 
saying  that  the  king  was  stunned  hj  the  blow,   Liv.    See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

3.  Instead  of  the  regular  Future  Infinitive,  the  Periphrastic  Form,  futu- 
rum  esse  ^t^  or  fore  ut,  with  the  Subjunctive,  Present  or  Imperfect,  is  fre- 
quently used : 

SpgrO  fore~ut  contingat  id  nobis,  I  hope  this  will  fall  to  our  lot  (I  hope  it 
will  come  to  pass  that  this  may  happen  to  us).  Cic.  Non  speraverat  Hanni- 
bal, fore  ut  ad  se  deficerent,  Hannibal  had  not  hoped  that  they  would  revolt 
to  him.  Liv. 

Note  1.— This  circumlocution  is  common  in  the  Passive,  and  is  moreover  necessary 
in  both  voices  in  all  verbs  which  want  the  Supine  and  the  participle  in  rus. 

Note  2.— Sometimes  fore  ut  with  the  Subjunctive,  Perfect  or  Pluperfect,  is  used  with 
the  force  of  a  Future  Perfect ;  and  in  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  fore  with  the  perfect 
participle  may  be  used  with  the  same  force : 

DicO  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  I  say  that  /shall  have  obtained  enough.  Cic. 

538.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  is  often  used  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb  :* 

With  Subject.— Caesarl  nuntiatum  est  equites  accedere,  it  was  announced 
to  Caesar  that  the  cavalry  was  approaching,  Caes.  Facinus  est  vincirl  civem 
Eomanum,  that  a  Boman  citizen  should  be  bound  is  a  crime.   Cic.    Certum 

1  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  as  subject  was  readily  developed  out  of  its  use  as  object; 
see  534, 1,  foot-note.  Thus  the  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  finally  canie  to  bo 
regarded  as  an  indeclinable  noun,  and  was  accordingly  used  not  only  as  subject  and 
object,  but  also  as  predicate  and  appositive  (539, 1,  and  II.),  and  sometimes  even  in 
the  Ablative  Absolute  (539,  IV.),  and  in  dependence  upon  prepositions  (533, 8,  note  4). 


INFINITIVE. 


313 


est  liberOs  amSri,  it  is  certain  that  children  are  loved.  Quint.    Legem  brevem 
esse  oportet,  it  is  necessary  that  a  law  be  brief.   Sen. 

Without  Subject.— Decretum  est  non  dare  signum,  it  was  decided  not  to 
give  the  signal.  Liv.  Ars  est  difficilis  rem  publicam  regere,  to  rule  a  state  is 
a  difficult  art,  Cic.  Carum  esse  jucundum  est,  it  is  pleasant  to  be  held  dear, 
Cic.  Haec  scire  juvat,  to  know  these  things  affords  pleasure.  Sen.  Peceare 
licet  nemini,  to  sin  is  laiofulfor  no  one,    Cic. 

1.  When  the  subject  is  an  Infinitive,  the  predicate  is  either  (1)  a  noun  or 
adjective  with  sum,^  or  (2)  a  verb  used  impersonally ;  see  the  examples  above. 

2.  The  Infinitive,  with  or  without  a  subject,  may  be  the  subject  of  another 
Infinitive : 

Intellegl  necesse  est  esse  deos,i  it  must  be  understood  that  there  are  gods 
Cic. 

3.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  a  demonstrative  as  an  attributive  in 
agreement  with  it : 

Quibusdam  hoc  displicet  philosophari,  this  philosophizing  (this  to  philos- 
ophize) displeases  some  persons,  Cic.  Vivere  ipsum  turpe  est  nobis,  to  live 
is  itself  ignoble  for  us,   Cic. 

539.  Special  Constructions.— The  Infinitive  with  a  subject  ^ 
is  sometimes  used — 

I.  As  a  Predicate  ;  see  362 : 

Exitus  fuit  orationis  sib!  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,*  the  close  of  his 
oration  was  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these.  Caes. 

Note.— An  Infinitive  without  a  subject  may  be  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative: 
Vivere  est  cogitare,  to  live  is  to  think.  Cic. 

II.  As  an  Appositive  ;  see  363 : 

Oraculum  datum  erat  victrices  Athonas  fore,  an  oracle  had  been  given^ 
that  Athens  would  be  victorious.  Cic.  Illud  soleo  mirari,  non  me  accipere 
tuus  lltteras,3  /  am  accustomed  to  wonder  at  this^  that  I  do  not  receive  your 
letter,  Cic. 

III.  In  Exclamations  ;  see  381 : 

Te  sic  vexari,  that  you  should  be  thus  troubled/  Cic.  Mene  inceptO  de- 
sistere  victam,  that  /,  vanquished^  should  abandon  my  undertaking  !  *^  Verg. 

lY.  In  the  Ablative  Absolute  ;  see  431,  note  1 : 

Audits  Darlum  mOvisse  pergit,  having  heard  that  Darius  had  withdrawn 
(that  Darius  had  withdrawn  having  been  heard),  he  advanced.   Curt. 

*  Esse  deos  is  the  subject  oi  intellegl,  and  intellegl  esse  deos  of  est. 

'  Including  the  modifiers  of  each.  Thus  in  the  example  the  whole  clause,  sib\  nul- 
lam cum  Ms  amicitiam  esse,  is  used  as  a  Predicate  Nominative  in  agreement  with  the 
subject  exitus;  see  363. 

8  In  the  examples,  the  clause  victrlces  Athmasfore  is  in  apposition  with  craculum, 
and  the  clause  non  me  accipere  tuus  lUteras,  in  apposition  with  illud, 

*  This  use  of  the  Infinitive  conforms,  it  will  be  observed,  to  the  use  of  the  Accusative 
and  Nominative  in  exclamations  (381,  with  note  8). 

14 


314 


GER  UNDS, 


II.  Substantive  Clauses. 
540.  In  Latin,  clauses  which  are  used  as  mdstantives  take  one  of 
four  forms.     They  may  be— 

I.  Indirect  Questions: 

Quaeritur,  cur  dissentiant,  it  is  asked  why  tliey  disagree,   Cic.    Quid  agen- 
dum sit,  nesciO,  /  do  not  know  what  ougU  to  he  done.   Cic. 
Note.— For  the  use  of  Indirect  Questions,  see  539, 1. 

II.  Infinitive  Clauses: 

Antecellere  contigit,  it  was  lis  good  fortune  to  excel  (to  excel  happened) 
Cic.     Magna  negotia  voluit  agere,  he  wished  to  achieve  great  undertaUngs.  Cic. 
Note.— For  the  use  oi  Injlnitive  Clauses,  see  534;  535. 

III  Subjunctive  Clauses,  generally  introduced  by  ut,  ne,  etc. : 
Contigit  ut  patriam  vindicaret,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to  save  his  countn/. 

Nep.    Vol6  ut  mihl  respondeas,  /  wish  you  would  answer  me.   Cic.         - 
NoTE.-For  the  use  of  such  Subjunctive  Clauses,  see  498;  499,  3;  501. 

IV  Clauses  introduced  by  quod: 

Beneflcium  est  quod  neccsse  est  morl,  it  is  a  Uemng  that  it  is  necessary  to 
die.   Sen.    GaudeO  quod  te  interpellavl,  /  rejoice  that  (because)  I  have  inter- 

rupted  you,   Cic. 

Note  ^Quod-clauses,  used  substantively,  either  give  promincuce  to  the  fact  stated, 
or  present  it  as  a  gra^cnd  or  reason.  They  are  used  as  the  mhject  of  impersonal  verbs, 
and  as  the  olject  of  many  transitive  verbs,  especially  of  such  as  denote  emot^on  or  feel- 

'''''huc  accedebat  quod  exercitum  luxurioso  habuerat,  to  this  .cas  added  i^f'^'!^^' 
ne  nad  icept  tke  army  in  luxury.   Sail.     Adde  quod  ^^^--^^^^^^l^;^^^^^^ 
mores  add  the  fact  that  to  learn  liberal  arts  refines  manners.  Ovid.    Bene  facis  quod 
Tadiuvls,  yoido  well  that  you  assist  me.  Cic.    Dolebam  qu<^^-eium  -^  / 

was  grieving  because  I  had  lost  a  companion.  Cic.    See  also  53o,  III.,  note. 

SECTION    VIII. 

GERUNDS,   GERUNDIVES,^  SUPINES,   AND   PARTICIPLES. 

I.  Gerunds. 
541    The  Gerund  is  a  verbal  noun  which  shares  so  largely  the 
character  of  a  verb  that  it  governs  oblique  cases,  and  takes  ad- 
verbial modifiers  : 

""r^cM^ses  occur-(l)  as  the  subject  of  accedit,  accidit,  appdret,  evenU,ft 
nocetobest,  occurrit.  prodest,  etc. ;  also  of  est  with  a  noun  or  adjective,  as  causa  est, 
Z^lmeTZ  gratumest,  indlgnum  est,  mlrum  est,  etc.;  and  (2)  as  dependent  upon 
tcZa£ld^^^^^  (p.20,  foot-note  1),  adm^ror,  animadveHo,  angor   bene  fac^O 
dZtordoleO,  excuse; faciO,  gaudeO,  glorior,  laetor,  mlror,  mitio,  om^ttO,  praetereO, 

^'''7^^e%hund  and  the  Gerundive  were  originally  identical.    The  former  is  the  neu- 


GERUI^DS. 


315 


Jus  vocandi  i  senatum,  the  right  of  summoning  the  senate.  Liv.  Beilte 
Vivendi »  cupiditas,  the  desire  of  living  happily.    Cic. 

Note.— In  a  few  instances  the  Gerund  has  apparently  a  passive  meaning: 
Neque  habent  propriam  percipiendl  notam,  nor  have  they  any  proper  mark  of  dis- 
tinction (i.  e.,  to  distinguish  them).  Cic. 

642.  The  Gerund  has  four  cases— the  Genitive,  Dative,  Accvsa- 
tive,  and  Ablative — used  in  general  like  the  same  cases  of  nouns. 
Thus— 

I.  The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  used  with  nouns  and  adjectives :« 

^  Ars  Vivendi,  the  art  of  living.  Cic.  Studiosus  erat  audiendl,  he  was  de- 
sirous of  hearing.  Nep.  Cupidus  te  audiendi,  desirous  of  hearing  you.  Cic. 
Artem  vOra  ac  falsa  dijudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from 
false.   Cic. 

Note  1.— The  Gerund  usually  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb,  but  sometimes,  by 
virtue  of  its  substantive  nature,  it  governs  the  Genitive,  especially  the  Genitive  of  per- 
sonal pronouns — mel,  nostri,  tul,  vestrt,  sul: 

Copia  placandi  tui  {of  a  woman),  an  opportunity  of  appeasing  you.  Ov.  Sul  con- 
servandi  causa,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving  themselves.  Cic.  Vestri  adhortandi 
causa,  for  the  purpose  of  exhorting  you.  Liv.  Keiciendi  3  jiidicum  potestas,  the  power 
of  challenging  (of)  the  judges.  Cic.  Lucis  tuendi  cOpia,  the  privilege  of  beholding  the 
light.  Plant. 

Note  2.— The  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  purpose  or  ten- 
dency : 

Leges  pellendi  clarOs  viros,  laws  for  (lit.,  of)  driving  away  illustrious  men.  Tac. 

II.  The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  with  a  few  verbs  and  adjectives 
which  regularly  govern  the  Dative : 

Cum  solvendo  non  essent,  sifice  they  were  not  able  to  pay.  Cic.  Aqua 
utilis  est  bibendo,  water  is  useful  for  drinking.  Plin. 

NoTE.~The  Dative  of  the  Gerund  is  rare;  *  with  an  object  it  occurs  only  in  Plautus. 

III.  The  Accusative  op  the  Gerund  is  used  after  a  few  prepositions :  ^ 

Ad  discendum  propensi  sumus,  we  are  inclined  to  learn  (to  learning).  Cic. 
Inter  ludendum,  in  or  during  play.  Quint. 

ter  of  a  participle  used  substantively,  while  the  latter  is  that  same  participle  used  adjec- 
ticely.  Moreover,  from  this  participle  the  Gerund  developed  an  active  meaning  and  the 
Gerundive  &  passive.  On  the  Origin  and  Use  of  Gerunds  and  Gerundives,  see  Jolly, 
*Geschichte  des  Infinitivs,'  pp.  198-200;  Draeger,  II.,  pp.  789-823. 

*  Vocandi  as  a  Genitive  is  governed  hy  jiis,  and  yet  it  governs  the  Accusative  sena- 
tum ;  Vivendi  is  governed  by  cupiditas,  and  yet  it  takes  the  adverbial  modifier  bedte. 

2  The  adjectives  which  take  the  Genitive  of  the  Gerund  are  chiefly  those  denoting 
DESIRE,  knowledge,  SKILL,  EEcoLLEOTiON,  and  their  opposites :  avidus,  cupidus,  stu- 
diosus ;  conscius,  gndrus,  Igndrus  ;  perltus,  imperltus,  Inmetus,  etc. 

»  Pronounced  as  if  written  rejiciendl;  see  p.  20,  foot-note  1. 

<  According  to  Jolly,  'Geschichte  des  Infinitivs/  p.  200,  the  Gerund  originally  had 
only  one  case,  the  Dative,  and  was  virtually  an  Infinitive. 

6  Most  frequently  after  ad;  sometimes  after  inter  and  ob ;  very  rarely  after  ante, 
circa,  and  in. 


316 


GER  UNLIVES. 


Note  1. — The  Accusative  of  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  rare: 
Ad  placandum  deos  pertinet,  it  tends  to  appease  the  gods.  Cic. 
Note  2. — The  Gerund  with  ad  often  ^anoies  purpose : 

Ad  imitandum  mihi  propositum  est  exemplar  illud,  that  model  has  heeyi  set  before 
me  for  imitation.  Cic. 

IV.  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  (1)  as  Ablative  of  Mcans^ 
and  (2)  with  J»r^jDos^7^07i5  .*  * 

Mens  discendo  alitur,  tlie  mind  is  nourisJied  by  learning.  Cic.  Salutem 
hominibus  dando,  hj  giving  safety  to  men.  Cic.  Virtutes  cemuntur  in 
agendo,  virtues  are  seen  in  action,  Cic.  Deterrere  a  scrlbendo,  to  deter  from 
writing.    Cic, 

Note  1. — After  prepositions,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare  : 

In  tribuendo  suum  cuique,  in  giving  every  one  his  oxen.  Cic. 

Note  2. — Without  a  preposition,  the  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  denotes  in  a  few  in- 
stances some  other  relation  than  that  of  means,  as  time.,  separation^  etc. : 

Incipiendo  refugi,  /  drew  back  in  the  xery  beginning.  Cic. 

II.  Gerundives. 

643.  The  Gerundive,  like  other  participles,  agrees  with  nouns 
and  pronouns : 

Inita  sunt  consilia  urbis  delendae,  plans  have  been  formed  for  destroying  the 
city  (of  the  city  to  be  destroyed).  Cic.  Numa  sacerdotibus  creandis  animum 
adjC'cit,  Numa  gave  his  attention  to  the  appointment  o/  priests,   Liv. 

Note.— A  noun  (or  pronoun)  and  a  Gerundive  in  agreement  with  it  form  the  Ge- 
rundive Construction, 

544.  The  Gerundive  Construction  may  be  used — 

1.  In  place  of  a  Gerund  ivith  a  direct  object.  It  then  takes  the  case 
of  the  Gerund  whose  place  it  supplies :  "*• 

Libido  ejus  videndl  (=  libido  eum  videndi),  the  desire  of  seeing  him  (lit., 
of  him,  to  be  seen).  Cic.  Platonia  audiendl  (=  Plat5nem  audiendi)  studiosus, 
fond  of  hearing  Plato,  Cic.  Legendls  orutoribus  (=  legendo  oratorOs),  by 
reading  the  orators,   Cic. 

Note.— The  Gerundive  Construction  should  not  be  used  for  the  Gerund  with  a  neu- 
ter pronoun  or  adjective  as  object,  as  it  could  not  distinguish  the  gender : 

Artem  vera  ac  falsa  dijudicandi,  the  art  of  distinguishing  true  things  from  false. 
Cic. 

2.  In  the  Dative  and  in  the  Ablative  with  a  preposition  : 

Locum  oppido  condendo  ceperunt,  they  selected  a  place  for  founding  a  city. 
Liv.  Tempora  demetendis  friictibus  accommodata,  seasons  suitable  for  gath- 
ering fruits.  Cic.  Brutus  in  liberanda  patria  est  interfectus,  Brutus  was  slain 
in  liberating  his  country.   Cic. 

1  The  Ablative  of  the  Gerund  is  used  most  frequently  after  a  (ab),  de,  ex  (e),  in; 
rarely  after  cum^  pro^  and  super. 


SUPINES. 


317 


Note  1.— The  learner  will  remember  that  in  the  Dative  (542,  II.,  note)  and  in  the 
Ablative  icith  a  preposition  (54}3,  IV.,  note  1)  the  Gerund  with  a  direct  object  is  ex- 
ceedingly rare.    The  Gerundi've  Construction  supplies  its  place. 

Note  2.— The  Gerundive  Construction  somethnes  denotes  purpose  or  tendency^  es- 
pecially in  the  Accusative  after  verbs  of  giving.,  permitting^  taking^  etc. : 

Attribuit  Italiam  vastandam  (for  ad  vastandum)  Catilinae,  he  assigned  Italy  to  Cat- 
iline to  ravage  (to  be  ravaged).  Cic.  Firmandae  valctudini  in  Campaniam  concessit, 
he  withdrew  into  Campania  to  confirm  his  health.  Tac.  Haec  tradendae  Hannibali 
victoriae  sunt,  these  things  are  for  the  purpose  of  giving  victory  to  Hannibal.  Liv. 
Proficiscitur  cognoscendae  antlquitutis,  he  sets  out  for  the  pu?'pose  of  studying  antiq- 
uity. Tac. 

Note  8. — The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Dative  occurs  after  certain  official 
names,  as  decemviri^  triumviri,  comitia ;  * 

Decemviros  legibus  scribendls  creavimus,  we  have  appointed  a  committee  of  ten  to 
prepare  laws.  Liv. 

Note  4. — The  Gerundive  Construction  in  the  Ablative  occurs  after  comparatives : 

Nullum  officium  referenda  gratia  magis  necessarium  est,  no  duty  is  more  necessary 
than  that  of  returning  a  favor.  Cic. 

Note  5.— The  Gerundive  Construction  is  in  general  admissible  only  in  transitive 
verbs,  but  it  occurs  in  fitor,fruor,fungor,  potior,  etc.,  originally  transitive  : 

Ad  munus  fungendum,  for  discharging  the  duty.  Cic.  Spcs  potiundOrum  castro- 
rum,  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp.  Caes. 


III.  SuriNES. 

545.  The  Supine,  like  the  Gerund,  is  a  verbal  noun.  It  has  a 
form  in  um  and  a  form  in  u. 

Note  1. — The  Supine  in  um  is  an  Accusative;  that  in  a  is  generally  an  Ablative, 
though  sometimes  perhaps  a  Dative. ^ 

Note  2.— The  Supine  in  um  governs  the  same  case  as  the  verb : 

LegutOs  mittunt  rogatum  auidlium,  they  send  ambassadors  to  ask  aid.  Caes. 

RULE  lilX.— Supine  in  Um. 

546.  The  Supine  in  U7n  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion 
to  express  purpose  : 

LegatI  venerunt  res  repetitum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution.  Liv. 
Ad  Caesarem  congratulatum  convenerunt,  they  came  to  Caesar  to  congroJt- 
ulate  him,   Caes. 

1.  The  Supine  in  um  occurs  in  a  few  instances  after  verbs  which  do  not  directly  ex- 
press motion : 

Filiam  Agrippae  niiptum  dedit,  h^  gave  his  daughter  in  marriage  to  Agrippa, 
Suet. 

2.  The  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eO  is  equivalent  to  the  forms  of  the  first  Periphras- 
tic Conjugation,  and  may  often  be  rendered  Hterally : 

Bonos  omnes  perditum  eunt,  they  are  going  to  destroy  all  the  good.  Sail. 

1  But  in  most  instances  the  Dative  may  be  explained  as  dependent  either  upon  the 
verb  or  upon  the  predicate  as  a  whole;  see  384,  4. 

2  See  Hubschmann,  p.  223;  Draeger,  II.,  p.  833;  Jolly,  p.  201. 


318 


PARTICIPLES. 


Note.— But  in  subordinate  clauses  the  Supine  in  um  with  the  verb  eO  is  often  used 
for  the  simple  verb : 

Ultum  ire  (=  ulciscl)  injurias  festlnat,  he  hastens  to  avenge  the  injuries.  Sail. 

8.  The  Supine  in  um  with  Irl,  the  Infinitive  Passive  of  eO^  forms,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered (233,  III.,  1),  the  Future  Passive  Infinitive: 

Brutum  visum  irl  a  me  puto,  /  think  Brutus  will  he  seen  by  me.  Cic. 

4.  The  Supine  in  um  is  not  very  common ;  ^  but  purpose  may  be  denoted  by  other 
constructions : 

1)  By  -w^  or  qit^l  with  the  Subjunctiioe  ;  see  497. 

2)  By  G&runcU  or  Gerimdives  ;  see  643, 1.,  note  2,  and  III.,  note  2;  544, 2,  note  2. 
8)  By  Participles;  see  549,  3. 

RUIiE  LX.— Supine  in  u. 

547.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative 
of  Specification  (42 1) : 

Quid  est  tam  jucundum  audita,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 
Cic.  Difficile  dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  tell  Cic.  De  genere  mortis  difficile 
dictu  est,  it  is  difficult  to  speak  of  the  kind  of  death.  Cic.  Civitas  incredi- 
bile  memoratu  est  quantum  creverit,  it  is  incredible  to  relate  how  much  the 
state  increased.   Sail. 

KoTE.— The  Supine  in  u  never  governs  an  oblique  case,  but  it  may  take  an  Ablative 
with  a  preposition,  as  in  the  third  example  above. 

1.  The  Supine  in  u  is  used  chiefly  with  Jucimdus,  optimus;  facilis,  procllvis^  dif- 
fcilis;  incredihiUs^memorahilis;  honestus,  turpis ;  dlgnus,  indlgnus ;  fas,  nefds, 

opus^  and  scelus. 

2.  The  Supine  in  u  is  very  rare.  The  most  common  examples  are  audltil,  dictfi^ 
facta,  ndtu,  msii;  less  common,  cogniiii,  intellectu,  inventu,  memoratu^  reldtu, 
scitil,  tractdtu,  Victu.''^ 

IV.  Participles. 

548.  The  Pakticiple  is  a  verbal  adjective  which  governs  the 
same  cases  as  the  verb  : 

Animus  se  non  videns  alia  cemit,  the  mind^  though  it  does  not  see  itself 
(lit.,  not  seeing  itself)^  discerns  other  things.   Cic. 

Note  1.— For  Participles  used  substantively,  see  441. 

Note  2.— Participles  used  substantively  sometimes  retain  the  adverbial  modifiers 
which  belonged  to  them  as  participles,  and  sometimes  take  adjective  modifiers : 

Non  tam  praemia  sequi  recte  factorum  quam  ipsa  rectc  facta,  not  to  seek  the  refwards 
of  good  deeds  (things  rightly  done)  so  much  as  good  deeds  themselves.  Cic.  Praecla- 
rum  atque  divinum  factum,  am,  excellent  and  divine  deed.  Cic. 

649.  Pakticiples  are  often  used — 
1.  To  denote  Time,  Cause,  Manner,  Means  : 


1  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  829,  the  Supine  in  um  is  found  in  only  two  hundred 
and  thirty-six  verbs,  mostly  of  the  First  and  Third  Conjugations. 

2  According  to  Draeger,  II.,  p.  833,  the  Supine  in  H  is  found  in  one  hundred  and  nine 
verbs. 


PARTICIPLES. 


319 


Plat5  scrlbens  mortuus  est,  Plato  died  while  writing.  Cic.  Iturl  in  proe- 
lium  canunt,  they  sing  when  about  to  go  into  battle.  Tac.  Sol  oriens  diem 
conficit,  the  sun  by  its  rising  causes  the  day.  Cic.  Milites  rentintiant,  se  per- 
fidiam  veritos  revertisse,  the  soldiers  report  that  they  returned  because  they 
feared  perfidy  (having  feared).   Caes. 

2.  To  denote  Condition  or  Concession  : 

Mendaci  homini  ne  verum  quidem  dicenti  credere  non  solemus,  we  are 
not  wont  to  believe  a  liar^  even  if  he  spealcs  the  truth.  Cic.  Eeluctante  natura, 
irritus  labor  est,  if  nature  opposes^  effort  is  vain.  Sen.  Scripta  tua  jam  diti 
exspectans,  non  audeo  tamen  flagitare,  though  I  have  been  long  expecting  your 
work.,  yet  I  do  not  dare  to  ask  for  it.   Cic. 

3.  To  denote  Purpose  ;  ' 

Perseus  rediit,  belli  casum  tentaturus,  Perseus  returned  to  try  (about  to 
try)  the  fortune  of  war.  Liv.  Attribuit  nOs  trucidandos  Cethego,  he  assigned 
us  to  Cethegus  to  slaughter.   Cic. 

4.  To  supply  the  place  of  Relative  Clauses  : 

Omnes  aliud  agentes,  aliud  simulantes,  improbi  sunt,  all  who  do  one  thing 
and  pretend  another  are  dlslionest.  Cic. 

5.  To  supply  the  place  of  Principal  Clauses  : 

Classem  devlctam  cepit,  he  conquered  and  tooh  the  fleet  (took  the  fleet  con- 
quered). Nep.  Ee  consentientes,  vocabulis  difierebant,  they  agreed  in  fact., 
but  differed  in  words.   Cic. 

Note  1.— A  participle  with  a  negative  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  noun 
and  the  preposition  u'ithout: 

Miserum  est,  nihil  proficientem  angi,  it  is  sad  to  be  troubled  without  accomplish- 
ing anything.  Cic.    Non  erubescens,  without  blushing.  Cic. 

Note  2. — The  perfect  participle  is  often  best  rendered  by  a  participial  or 
verbal  noun  with  of  : 

Homerus  fait  ante  Roraam  conditam,  Homer  lived  (was)  before  the  found- 
^i^9  of  Rome  (before  Rome  founded).   Cic. 

550.  The  Tenses  of  the  Pakticiple — Present^  Perfect^  and 

Future — denote  only  relative  time.      They  accordingly  represent 

the  time  respectively  as  present^  past^  and  future  relatively  to  that 

of  the  principal  verb  : 

Oculus  se  non  videns  alia  cemit,  tJie  eye^  tJiough  it  does  not  see  itself  (not 
seeing  itself),  discerns  other  things.  Cic.  Plato  scribens  mortuus  est,  Plato 
died  while  writing.  Cic.  Uva  maturata  dulcescit,  the  grape.,  when  it  has 
ripened  (having  ripened),  becomes  sweet.  Cic.  Sapiens  bona  semper  placitura 
laudat,  the  wise  man  praises  blessings  which  will  always  please  (being  about  to 
please).   Sen. 

Note  1.— The  perfect  participle,  both  in  deponent  and  in  passive  verbs,  is  sometimes 
used  of  present  time,  and  sometimes  in  passive  verbs  it  loses  in  a  great  degree  its  force 
as  a  tense,  and  is  best  rendered  by  a  verbal  noun; 


330 


PARTICLES. 


CONJUNCTIONS. 


321 


EI«dem  ducibns  usus  Numidas  mittit,  employing  the  same  persona  as  guides,  he 
sent  the  Numidians.  Caes.  Inccnsas  perfert  naves,  he  reports  the  humlng  oj  the 
ships  (the  ships  set  on  lire).  Yerg.    See  also  644. 

Note  2.-In  the  compound  tenses  the  perfect  participle  often  becomes  virtually  a 
predicate  adjective  expressing  the  result  of  the  action  : 

Causae  sunt  cognitae,  the  causes  are  known.  Caes.    See  also  471,  6,  note  1. 

Note  3.— For  the  Perfect  Participle  with  habeO,  see  388, 1,  note. 

Note  4.-The  want  of  a  perfect  active  participle  is  sometimes  supplied  by  a  temporal 
clause,  and  sometimes  by  ^ perfect pa^im  participle  in  the  Ablative  Absolute  : 

Caesar,  postquam  venit,  Ehenum  transire  cOnstituit,  Caesar,  having  arrived,  de- 
cided to  cross  the  Rhine.  Caes.  Equitatu  praemisso  subsequebatur,  having  sent  for- 
ward his  cavalry,  hefolloiced.  Caes.    See  also  431 ;  519. 

Note  5.-The  want  of  a  present  passive  participle  is  generally  supplied  by  a  tem- 
poral clause :  >    jj-k    n  *    t 

Cum  a  Catdne  laudabar,  reprehendl  me  a  ceteris  patiebar,  leiyig  praised  t>y  cato.i 

allowed  myself  to  be  censured  by  the  otJiers.  Cic. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

SYNTAX   OF   PARTICLES. 


BUUB  LXI.— Use  of  Adverbs, 

551.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and   otlier 

ADVERBS : 

Sapientes  f  eliciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  liappily.  Cic.  Facile  doctissimus, 
unquesiionaUy  the  most  learned.  Cic.     Haud  alitor,  not  otiterwise,  Verg. 

Note  1.— For  predicate  adverbs  with  sum,  see  360,  note  2;  for  adverbs  with 
nouns  used  adjectively,  see  441,  3;  for  adverbs  in  place  of  adjectives,  see  443,  notes 
8  and  4;  for  adverbs  with  participles  used  substantively,  see  648,  note  2. 

Note  2.— Sic  and  ita  mean  '  so,'  '  thus/  Jta  has  also  a  limiting  sense,  '  in  so  far,'  as 
in  ita-8l  (607,  3,  note  2).  Adeo  means  Ho  such  a  degree  or  result ' ;  tarn,  tantopere, 
*  60  much'— ^am  used  mostly  with  adjectives  and  adverbs,  and  tantopere  with  verbs. 

552.  The  common  negative  particles  are  non,  ne^  hand, 

1.  Kon  is  the  usual  negative;  ne  is  used  in  prohibitions,  wishes,  and  purposes  (483, 
3;  488;  497),  and  haud,  in  haud  scio  an,  and  with  adjectives  and  adverbs :  haud  771U 
rCibile,  not  wonderful ;  haud  aliter,  not  otherwise.  Nl  for  ne  is  rare.  Ne  nbn  after 
vide  is  often  best  rendered  whether. 

2.  In  non  modo  non  and  in  nbn  solum  ndn  the  second  non  is  generally  omitted  be- 
fore sed  or  verum,  followed  by  ne-quidem  or  vix  (rarely  etiam),  when  the  verb  of  the 
second  clause  belongs  also  to  the  first: 

AssentatiO  non  modo  amico,  sed  no  libero  quidem  digna  est,  flattery  is  not  only  not 
worthy  of  a  friend,  but  not  even  of  a  free  man.  Cic. 

3.  Minus  often  has  nearly  the  force  of  non ;  si  minus  =  si  non.  Sin  aliter^  has 
nearly  the  same  force  as  si  minus.    Minime  often  means  '  not  at  all,'  *by  no  means.' 


553.  Two  Negatives  are  generally  equivalent  to  an  affirma- 
tive, as  in  English : 

Nihil  non  arroget,  let  Mm,  claim  everything,  Hor.  Neque  hoc  Zcno  non 
vidit,  rior  did  Zeno  overlooh  this.   Cic. 

1.  Non  before  a  general  negative  gives  it  the  force  of  an  indefinite  affirmative,  but 
after  such  negative  the  force  of  a  general  affirmative : 

Konnemd,  some  one;  nonnihil,  something;  nonniinquam,  sometimes; 

Nemo  non,  every  one;         nihil  non,  everything ;         niinquam  non,  always. 

2.  After  a  general  negative,  ne^quidem  gives  emphasis  to  the  negation,  and  neque 
—neque,  neve — neve,  and  the  like,  repeat  the  negation  distributively : 

Non  praetereundum  est  no  id  quidem,  we  must  not  pass  by  even  this.  Cic.    Nem5 
unquam  neque  poeta  neque  orator  fuit,  no  one  was  ever  either  a  poet  or  an  orator.  Cic. 
Note.— For  the  Use  of  Prepositions,  see  43^-436. 

554.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  unite  similar  constructions 
(309,  1).     They  comprise  five  classes. 

I.  Copulative  Conjunctions  denote  union  : 

Castor  ct  Pollux,  Castor  and  Pollux.  Cic.  Senatus  populusque,  the  senate 
and  people.   Cic.    Nee  erat  difficile,  nor  was  it  difficult.  Liv. 

1.  For  list,  see  310, 1. 

2.  Et  simply  connects ;  que  implies  a  more  intimate  relationship ;  atque  and  dc  gen- 
erally give  prominence  to  what  follows.  Neque  and  nee  have  the  force  of  et  nbn.  Et 
and  etiam  sometimes  mean  even. 

IHOTE.— Atque  and  dc  generally  mean  as,  than,  after  adjectives  and  adverbs  of  like- 
ness and  unlikeness:  talis  dc,  'such  as';  aeque  ^c, ' equally  as ' ;  aliter  a^gwe, ' other- 
wise than.'    See  also  451,  5. 

8.  Que  is  an  enclitic,  and  dc  in  the  best  prose  is  used  only  before  consonants. 

4.  Etiam,  quoque,  adeo,  and  the  like,  are  sometimes  associated  with  et,  atque,  dc, 
and  que,  and  sometimes  even  supply  their  place.  Quoque  follows  the  word  which  it 
connects :  is  quoque,  '  he  also.'  Etiam, '  also,'  *  further,'  '  even,'  often  adds  a  new  cu*- 
cumstance. 

6.  Sometimes  two  copulatives  are  used :  et—et,  que—que,^  et—que,  que—et,  que— 
atque,^  turn, — tum,  cum — turn,, '  both — and ' ;  but  cum — turn  gives  prominence  to  the  sec- 
ond word  or  clause ;  non  solum  (non  modo,  or  non  tantum) — sed  etiam  (verum  etiam), 

*  not  only—but  also ' ;  neque  (nee) — neque  (nee),  *  neither —nor';  neque  (nee)— e^  (que), 

*  not— but  {and) ' ;  et— neque  (nee),  *  and  not.' 

6.  Between  two  words  connected  copulatively  the  conjunction  is  generally  expressed, 
though  sometimes  omitted,  especially  between  the  names  of  two  colleagues.  Between 
several  words  it  is  in  the  best  prose  generally  repeated  or  omitted  altogether,  though 
que  may  be  used  with  the  last  even  when  the  conjunction  is  omitted  between  the  others : 
pax  et  tranquillitds  et  concordia,  or  pax,  tranquillitde,  concordia,  or  pax,  tranquil- 
litds,  concordiaque. 

Note  1. — Et  is  often  omitted  between  conditional  clauses,  except  before  rwn. 

Note  2. — A  series  may  begin  with  prlmum  or  prlmb,  may  be  continued  by  deinde 
followed  by  timi,  posted,  praetered,  or  some  similar  word,  and  may  close  with  denique 

*  Que — que  is  rare,  except  in  poetry ;  que — atque,  rare  even  in  poetry ;  see  Verg., 
Aen.,  I.,  18;  Geor.,  I.,  182. 


322 


CONJUNCTIONS, 


or  postremoA    Beinde  may  be  repeated  several  times  hBiween  prlmum  and  denique  or 
postremo,'^ 

II.  Disjunctive  Conjunctions  denote  separation  : 

Aut  vestra  aut  sua  culpa,  eitlier  your  fault  or  his  own,  Liv.  Duabus  tri- 
busve  horis,  in  two  or  three  hours,   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  2. 

2.  Aut  denotes  a  stronger  antithesis  than  vel,  and  must  be  used  if  the  one  supposition 
excludes  the  other:  aut  'vdriim  aut /ahum, '  either  true  or  false/  Vel  implies  a  differ- 
ence in  the  expression  rather  than  in  the  thing.  It  is  generally  corrective,  and  is  often 
followed  by  potius,  etiam,  or  dicam :  lauddtur^  vel  etiam  amdtur^  '  he  is  praised,  or 
even  (rather)  loved.'  It  sometimes  means  even^  and  sometimes /or  example.  Velut 
often  means/or  example.     Ve  for  vel  is  appended  as  an  enclitic. 

Note.— In  negative  clauses  aut  and  ve  often  continue  the  negation  :  nbn  honor  aut 
virtus,  '  neither  (not)  honor  nor  virtue.' 

3.  Slve  (si — ve)  does  not  imply  any  real  difference  or  opposition ;  it  often  connects 
different  names  of  the  same  object :  Pallas  slve  Minerva,  '  Pallas  or  Minerva '  (another 
name  of  the  same  goddess). 

Note.— Disjunctive  conjunctions  are  often  combined  as  correlatives:  aut— aut,  vel 
— vel,  etc., '  either—  or.' 

III.  Adversative  Conjunctions  denote  opposition  or  contrast  : 

Cupi5  me  esse  clementem,  sed  me  inertiae  condemno,  /  wish  to  be  mild, 
hut  I  condemn  myself  for  inaction,  Cic.  Magnes  ferrum  ad  se  trahit,  ratio- 
nem  autem  adferre  non  possumus,  the  magnet  attracts  iron^  but  we  can  not 
assign  a  reason,   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  3. 

2.  Sed  and  verum  mark  a  direct  opposition ;  autem  and  vero  only  a  transition ;  at 
emphasizes  the  opposition;  atqui  often  introduces  an  objection;  ceterum  means  'but 
still,'  '  as  to  the  rest ' ;  tameriy  '  yet.' 

Note. — Sed  and  verum  are  sometimes  resumptive;  see  IV.,  3,  below : 

Sed  age,  respondo,  but  come,  reply.   Plaut. 

8.  Attamen,  sedtamen,  veruntamen,  *but  yet,'  are  compounds  oitamen. 

4.  Autem  and  vero  are  postpositive,  i.  e.,  they  are  placed  after  one  or  more  words 
in  their  clauses. 

IV.  Illative  Conjunctions  denote  inference  : 

In  umbra  igitur  pugnabimus,  we  shall  therefore  fight  in  the  shade.   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  4. 

2.  Certain  other  words,  sometimes  classed  with  adverbs  and  sometimes  with  conjunc- 
tions, are  also  illatives,  as  eo,  ideb,  idcircb,  proptered,  quamohrem,  qudpropter,  qiuire, 
qiLGcircd, 

8.  Igitur  generally  follows  the  word  which  it  connects:  Ale  igitur,  'this  one  there- 
fore.' After  a  digression,  igitur,  sed,  sed  tamen,  verum,  verum  tamen,  etc.,  are  often 
used  to  resume  an  interrupted  thought  or  construction.  They  may  often  be  rendered  '  I 
say' :  Sed  si  quis,  'if  any  one,  1  say.' 


1  For  examples,  see  Cic,  Fam.,  XV.,  14;  Div.,  II.,  66. 

2  Cicero,  Inv.,  II.,  49,  has  a  series  of  ten  members  in  which  prlmum  introduces  the 
first  member,  postremb  the  last,  and  deinde  each  of  the  other  eight. 


CONJUNCTIONS, 


323 


V.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Difficile  est  consilium,  sum  enim  solus,  counsel  is  difficult,  for  I  am  alone, 
Cic.     Etenim  jus  amant,yb;'  they  love  the  right,   Cic. 

1.  For  list,  see  310,  5. 

2.  Ktenim  and  namque  denote  a  closer  connection  than  enim  and  nam. 
8.  Enim  \^  postpositive  ;  see  554,  III.,  4. 

555.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  connect  subordinate  with 
principal  constructions  (309,  2).     They  comprise  eight  classes. 

I.  Temporal  Conjunctions  denote  time  : 

Paruit  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  ivas  necessary,  Cic.  Dum  ego 
in^iQiWd^^Mm.,  while  I  am  in  Sicily.    Cic.     See  also  311,  1 ;  518-531. 

I.  Dum  added  to  a  negative  means  yet;  nbndum,  'not  yet';  vixdum,  '  scarcely  yet.* 

II.  Comparative  Conjunctions  denote  comparison  : 

Ut  optasti,  ita  est,  it  is  as  you  desired.  Cic.  Velut  si  adesset,  as  if  he  were 
present,   Caes.     See  also  311,  2;  513,  II. 

1.  CoERELATivES  are  often  used  :  Tam — quam,  'as,'  'so— as,'  'as  much — as';  tarn — 
quam  quod  maxime, '  as  much  as  possible ' ;  nbn  minus — quam, '  not  less  than ' ;  n^n 
magis — quam,  'not  more  than.' 

Tam — quam,  and  xit — ita  with  a  superlative  are  sometimes  best  rendered  by  tJie  with 
the  comparative  :  ut  maxime — ita  maxime, '  the  more— the  more.' 

III.  Conditional  Conjunctions  denote  condition  : 

Si  peccavl,  ignOsce,  if  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.  Cic.  Nisi  est  consilium 
domi,  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home.    Cic.     See  also  311,  3 ;  606-513. 

1.  Nisi,  'if  not,'  in  negative  sentences  often  means  'except';  and  nisi  quod,  'except 
that,'  may  be  used  even  in  aflirmative  sentences.  Nisi  may  mean '  than.'  Nihil  aliud  nisi 
=  '  nothing  further '  (more,  except) ;  nihil  aliud  quam  = '  nothing  else '  (other  than). 

IV.  Concessive  Conjunctions  denote  concession  : 

Quam  quam  intellegunt,  though  they  understand.  Cic.  EtsI  nihil  habeat, 
although  he  has  nothing,  Cic.     See  also  311,  4;  514;  515. 

V.  Final  Conjunctions  denote  purpose  : 

Esse  oportet,  ut  vivas,  it  is  necessary  to  eat,  that  you  may  live.  Cic.  See 
also  311,  5  ;  497-499. 

VI.  Consecutive  Conjunctions  denote  consequence  or  result  : 

Atticus  ita  vixit,  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  Atticus  so  lived  thai 
he  was  very  dear  to  the  Athenians,   Nep.     Sec  also  311,  6 ;  600-504. 

VII.  Causal  Conjunctions  denote  cause  : 

Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so.  Cic.    See  also  311,7;  516;  517. 

VIII.  Interrogative  Conjunctions  or  Particles  denote  inquiry  or  ques- 
tion : 

Quaesieras,  nonne  putarem,  you  had  asked  whether  I  did  not  think,  Cic. 
See  also  311,  8;  351-353;  529. 


324 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


556.  Intekjections  are  sometimes  used  entirely  alone,  as  eheu, 
^  alas  ! '  and  sometimes  with  certain  cases  of  nouns;  see  381,  with 
note  3. 

657.  Various  parts  of  speech,  and  even  oaths  and  imprecations, 
sometimes  have  the  force  of  interjections  : 

Pax  ipeace)^  he  still/  miserum,  raiserabile,  sad^  lamentable!  oro,  pray ! 
a^e,  agite,  come,  well!  mehercules,  by  Hercules!  per  detim  fidem,  in  the 
name  of  the  gods!  sodes  =  si  audes  {for  audies),  if  you  will  hear! 


CHAPTER    VII. 

RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

558.  For  convenience  of  reference,  the  principal  Rules  of  Syn- 
tax are  here  introduced  in  a  body. 

Agreement  of  Nouns. 

I.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  the  same  person 
or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  case  (362) : 

Brutus  custos  libertatis  fuit,  Brutus  was  the  guardian  of  liberty, 

II.  An  Appositive  agrees  in  case  with  the  noun  or  pronoun 
which  it  qualifies  (363)  : 

Clullius  rex  moritur,  Cluilius  the  king  dies, 

NoMm  ATiYE .  — Vocative  . 

III.  The  Subject  of  a  Finite  verb  is  put  in  the  Nominative  (368) : 
Servius  regnavit,  Servius  reigned, 

IV.  The  Name  of  the  person  or  thing  addressed  is  put  in  the 
Vocative  (369) : 

Perge,  Laell,  proceed,  Laelius. 

Accusative. 

V.  The  Direct  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Accusative 

(371) : 

Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world, 

VI.  Verbs  of  making,  choosing,  calling,  regarding,  show- 
ing, and  the  like,  admit  two  Accusatives  of  the  same  person  or 
thing  (373)  : 

Hamilcarem  imperAtorem  ftcgrunt,  they  made  Eamilcar  commander. 


RULES   OF  SYNTAX. 


325 


VII.  ftome  verbs  of  asking,  demanding,  teaching,  and  con- 
cealing admit  two  Accusatives — one  of  the  person  and  the  other 
of  the  thing  (3T4)  : 

Me  sententiam  rogavit,  he  asked  me  my  opinion, 

VIII.  A  verb  or  an  adjective  may  take  an  Accusative  to  define 
its  application  (378) : 

Capita  velamur,  we  have  our  heads  "ceiled, 

IX.  Duration  op  Time  and  Extent  of  Space  are  expressed  by 
the  Accusative  (379) : 

Septem  et  triginta  regnavit  annos,  he  reigned  thirty-seven  years,  Quinque 
milia  passuum  ambulare,  to  walk  five  miles, 

X.  The  Place  to  which  is  designated  by  the  Accusative  (380) : 

I.  Generally  with  a  preposition—  ad  or  in : 

Legiones  ad  urbem  addticit,  he  is  leading  the  legions  to  or  toward  the  city, 

II.  In  names  of  towns  without  a  preposition : 
Nuntius  ROmam  redit,  the  messenger  returns  to  Rome. 

XI.  The  Accusative,  either  with  or  without  an  interjection,  may 
be  used  in  Exclamations  (381) : 

Heu  me  miserum,  ah  me  unhappy  ! 

Dative. 

XII.  The  Indirect  Object  of  an  action  is  put  in  the  Dative. 
It  is  used  (384)— 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  verbs : 
Tib!  servio,  lam  devoted  to  you, 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs,  in  connection  with  the  Direct  Object  : 
Agros  plebl  dedit,  he  gave  lands  to  the  com^mon  people, 

XIII.  Two  Datives — the  object  to  which  and  the  object  or 
END  FOR  WHICH — occur  with  a  few  verbs  (390) : 

I.  With  Intransitive  and  Passive  verbs : 

Malo  est  hominibus  avaritia,  avarice  is  an  evil  to  men, 

II.  With  Transitive  verbs  in  connection  with  the  Accusative  : 

Quinque  cohortes  castris  praesidio  reliquit,  he  left  five  cohorts  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  camp, 

XIV.  With  adjectives,  the  object  to  which  the  quality  is  di- 
rected is  put  in  the  Dative  (391) : 

Omnibus  carum  est,  it  is  dear  to  all. 


326 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


XV.  The  Dative  is  used  with  a  few  special  nouns  and  adverbs 
(392) : 

I.  With  a  few  nouns  from  verbs  which  take  the  Dative : 
Justitia  est  obtemperatio  legihM&^  justice  is  obedience  to  laws, 

II.  With  a  few  adverbs  from  adjectives  which  take  the  Dative : 
Congruenter  naturae  vivere,  to  live  in  accordance  with  nature. 

Genitive. 

XVI.  Any  noun,  not  an  Appositive,  qualifying  the  meaning  of 
another  noun,  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (395) : 

Catonis  orationes,  Cato'^s  orations, 

XVII.  Many  adjectives  take  a  Genitive  to  complete  their  mean- 
ing (399) : 

Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise. 

XVIII.  A  noun  predicated  of  another  noun  denoting  a  different 
person  or  thing  is  put  in  the  Genitive  (401) : 

Omnia  hostium  erant,  all  things  belonged  to  the  enemy. 

XIX.  The  Genitive  is  used  (406)— 

I.  With  misereor  and  miserescO : 
Miserere  lohbYum^  pity  the  labors. 

II.  With  recordor,  memini,  reminiscor,  and  obliviscor  r^ 
Meminit  praeteritorum,  he  remembers  the  past. 

III.  With  refert  and  interest : 

Interest  omnium,  it  is  the  interest  of  all, 

XX.  The  Accusative  of  the  Person  and  the  Genitive  of  the 
Thing  are  used  with  a  few  transitive  verbs  (409) : 

I.  With  verbs  of  remmding^  admonishing : 

Te  amicitiae  commonefacit,  he  reminds  you  of  friendship, 

II.  With  verbs  of  accusing^  convicting^  acquitting  : 
Viros  sceleris  arguis,  you  accuse  men  of  cHme, 

III.  With  miscret^  paenitet^  pudct^  tacdety  and  piget : 
Eorum  nos  miseret,  we  pity  them. 

Ablative  Proper. 

XXI.  The  Place  from  which  is  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (412) : 
I.  Generally  with  a  preposition — a,  ab,  de,  or  ex : 

Ab  urbe  proficiscitur,  he  sets  out  from  the  city. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


327 


II.  In  Names  of  Towns  without  a  preposition : 

Platonem  Athenis  arcessivit,  he  summoned  Plato  from  Athens. 

XXII.  Separation,  Source,  and  Cause  are  denoted  by  the  Abla- 
tive with  or  without  a  preposition  (413)  : 

Caedem  a  vobis  depello,  /  ward  off  slaughter  from  you,  H6c  audivl  de 
parente  meo,  /  heai^d  this  from  my  father.  Ars  titilitate  laudatur,  an  art  is 
praised  because  of  its  usefulness. 

XXIII.  Comparatives  without  quam  are  followed  by  the  Abla- 
tive (4  IT): 

Nihil  est  amabilius  virtute,  nothing  is  more  lovely  than  virtue. 

Instrumental  Ablative. 

XXIV.  The  Ablative  is  used  (419)— 

I.  To  denote  Accompaniment.    It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum : 
Vivit  cum  Balbo,  he  lives  ivith  Balbus. 

II.  To  denote  Characteristic  or  Quality.  It  is  then  modified  by  an 
Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Summa  virtute  adulescens,  a  youth  of  the  highest  virtue, 

III.  To  denote  Manner.  It  then  takes  the  preposition  cum,  or  is  mod- 
ified by  an  Adjective  or  by  a  Genitive : 

Cum  virtute  vixit,  he  lived  virtuously, 

XXV.  Instrument  and  Means  are  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (420) : 
Comibus  tauri  se  tutantur,  bulls  defend  themselves  with  their  horns. 

XXVI.  The  Ablative  is  used  (421)— 

I.  With  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  and  their  compounds : 
Plurimis  rebus  fruimur  et  utimur,  we  enjoy  and  use  very  many  things. 

II.  With  Verbs  and  Adjectives  of  Plenty  : 

Villa  abundat  lacte,  caseo,  melle,  the  villa  abounds  i?i  milk,  cheese,  and  honey, 

III.  With  dignus,  indignus,  and  contentus : 
Dignl  sunt  amicitia,  they  are  worthy  of  friendship, 

XXVII.  Price  is  generally  denoted  by  the  Ablative  (422) : 
Vendidit  auro  patriam,  he  sold  his  country  for  gold. 

XXVIII.  The  Measure  of  Difference  is  denoted  by  the  Ab- 
lative (423) : 

Uno  die  longiorem  mensem  faciunt,  they  make  the  month  one  day  longer. 

XXIX.  A  noun,  adjective,  or  verb  may  take  an  Ablative  to  de- 
fine its  application  (424) : 

Nomine,  non  potestate,  fuit  rex,  he  was  king  in  7ia7ne,  not  in  power. 


328 


MULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


Locative  Ablative. 
XXX.  The  Place  in  which  is  denoted  (425)— 
I.  Generally^by  the  Locative  Ablative  with  the  preposition  in  : 
Hannibal  in  Italia  fuit,  Hannibal  was  in  Italy. 

II    In  Names  of  Towns  by  the  Locative,  if  such  a  form  exists,  other- 
wise  by  the  Locative  Ablative  : 

Eomae  fuit,  he  was  at  Borne, 

Octogesimo  anno  est  mortuus,  he  died  in  his  eightieth  year. 

^  Jf^?'  ^  '^?^''  ^"""^  ^  participle  may  be  put  in  the  Ablative  to 
add  to  the  predicate  an  attendant  circumstance  (431): 

^   Servio  regnante  viguerunt,  they  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Serxius. 

Cases  with  Prepositions. 

XXXIII    The  Accusative  and  Ablative  may  be  used  with  prepo- 
sitions  (432) :  i^     i 

Ad  amicum,  to  a  friend.    In  Italia,  in  Italy. 

Agreement  op  Adjectives,  Pronouns,  and  Verbs. 

XXXIV.  An  adjective  agrees  with  its  noun  in  gender,  num- 
BER,  and  CASE  (438):  ' 

Fortuna  caeca  Q^t^  fortune  is  blind. 

XXXV  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  gender,  nuai- 
BER,  and  PERSON  (445) : 

Animal,  quod  sanguinem  habet,  an  animal  which  has  blood. 

Ego  reges  ejecl,  I  have  banished  Ungs. 

Use  of  the  Indicative. 

XXXVII.  The  Indicative  is  used  in  treating  of  facts  (474) : 
Deus  mundum  aedificavit,  God  made  (built)  the  world. 

Moods  and  Tenses  in  Principal  Clauses. 

XXXVIII.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  not 

AS  REAL,  but  AS  DESIRED  (483)  : 
Valeant  elves,  may  the  citizens  be  well. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


XXXIX.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  action  not  as 

REAL,  but  AS  POSSIBLE  (485)  I 

Hic  quaerat  quispiam,  here  some  one  may  inquire. 

XL.  The  Imperative  is  used  in  commands,  exhortations,  and 

ENTREATIES  (48T): 

Justitiam  qo\q^  practice  justice. 

>     Moods  and  Tenses  in  Subordinate  Clauses. 

XLI.  Principal  tenses  dejDcnd  upon  principal  tenses  ;  historical 
uj)on  historical  (491) : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  to  conquer. 

T  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Purpose  (497) — 

I.  With  the  relative  qui,  and  with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  unde,  etc. : 

Missi  sunt  qui  (=^ut  il)  consulerent  Apollincui,  they  were  sent  to  consult 
Apollo. 

II.  With  ut,  ne,  qu5,  quominus : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  tha^he  may  conquer. 

■SXflll.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  to  denote  Result  (500) — 


I.  With  tne  relative  qui,  ano^with  relative  adverbs,  as  ubi,  uude,  cur, 
etc. : 

Non  is  sum  qui  {=ut  ego)  his  titar,  I  am  not  such  a  one  as  to  use  these 
things.  ^ 

II.  With  ut,  ut  non,  quin :  ', 

Ita  vixit  ut  Atheniensibus  esset  carissimus,  he  so  lived  that  he  tvas  very 
dear  to  the  Athenians. 

-^LIV.  Conditional  sentences  with  si,  nisi,  ni,  sin,  take  (50T) — 

I.  The  Indicative  in  both  clauses  to  assume  the  supposed  case : 
Si  spiritum  ducit,  vivit,  if  he  breathes,  he  is  alive. 

II.  The  Present  or  Perfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  to  represent 
the  supposed  case  as  possible : 

Dies  deficiat,  si  velim  causam  defendere,  the  day  would  fail  me,  if  I  should 
ivish  to  defend  the  cause.  ^ 

III.  The  Imperfect  or  Pluperfect  Subjunctive  in  both  clauses  to  rep- 
resent the  supposed  case  as  contrary  to  fact : 

Pluribus  verbis  ad  te  scriberem,  si  res  verba  deslderaret,  I  should  write  to 
you  more  fully  (with  more  words),  if  the  case  required  words. 

XLV.  Conditional  clauses  take  the  Subjunctive  (513) — 


\ 


? 


--^*yi»i"»»*!*):.'-" 


330 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


r  I.  With  dum,  modo,  dummodo,  *  if  only/  '  provided  that  * ;  dum  ne, 
modo  ne,  dummodo  ne,  '  if  only  not,'  *  provided  that  not  * : 

Manent  ingenia,  modo  permaneat  industria,  mental  powers  remain^  if  "only 
industry  remains. 

II.  With  ac  si,  ut  si,  quam  si,  quasi,  tanquam,  tanquam  si,  velut, 
velut  si,  '  as  if,'  '  than  if,'  involving  an  ellipsis  of  the  real  conclusion : 

Perinde  habebo,  ac  si  scripsisses,  /  shall  regard  it  just  as  if  (i.  e.,  as  I 
should  M)  you  had  written, 

XLYI.  Concessive  clauses  take  (515) — 

I.  Generally  the  Indicative  in  the  best  prose,  when  introduced  by 
quamquam : 

Quamquam  intellegunt,  thovgh  they  understand, 

II.  The  Indicative  or  Subjunctive  when  introduced  by  etsi^  ciiamsiy 
(amcisl,  or  si,  like  conditional  clauses  with  si  : 

Etsi  nihil  scio  quod  gaudeam,  though  I  know  no  reason  why  /should  rejoice, 

HI.  The  Subjunctive  when  introduced  by  licet^  quamvlSj  ut^  nc^  cum^  or 
the  relative  qui  : 

Licet  irrideat,  though  he  may  deride, 

XLYII.  Causal  clauses  with  quod,  quia,  quoniam,  quando,  gen- 
erally take  (516) — 

I.  The  Indicative  to  assign  a  reason  positively  on  one's  own  authority: 
Quoniam  supplicatio  decreta  est,  since  a  thanlsgiving  has  been  decreed. 

II.  The  Subjunctive  to  assign  a  reason  doubtfully,  or  on  anof/icr's  au- 
thority : 

Socrates  accusatus  est,  quod  corrumperet  juvcntutem,  Socrates  tvas  accused^ 
because  he  corrupted  the  youth. 

XL VIII.  Causal  clauses  with  cum  and  qui  generally  take  the 
Subjunctive  in  writers  of  the  best  period  (517)  : 

Cum  vita  metus  plena  sit,  since  life  is  full  of  fear, 

XLIX.  In  temporal  clauses  with  postquam,  postedquam^  ub%  ut, 
simul  atque,  etc.,   'after,'  'when,'  'as  soon  as,'  the  Indicative  is 
used  (518): 
.  Postquam  vidit,  etc.,  castra  posuit,  he  pitched  his  camp,  after  h^  saw,  etc. 

L.  1.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  WHILE,  AS  LONG  AS,  take  the  Indicative  (519) : 

Haec  feci,  dum  licuit,  I  did  this  while  it  was  allowed, 

11.  Temporal  clauses  with  dum,  donee,  and  quoad,  in  the  sense 
of  until,  take — 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX, 


331 


1.  The  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  actual  fact:    ^ 
Delibera  hoc,  dum  ego  redeo,  consider  this  until  I  return. 

2.  The  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  desired, 
PROPOSED,  or  conceived  : 

Differant,  dum  defervescat  ira,  let  them  defer  it  till  their  anger  cools. 

LI.  In  temporal  clauses  with  antequam  and  priusquam  (520) — 

I.  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  is  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  an  actual  fact  : 
Priusquam  lucet,  adsunt,  they  are  present  before  it  is  light, 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  action  is  viewed  as  something  de- 
sired, PROPOSED,  or  conceived  : 

Antequam  de  re  publica  dicam,  before  /(can)  speak  of  the  republic. 
II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put  in  the  Subjunctive  : 
*    Antequam  urbem  caperent,  before  they  tooh  the  city. 
Ln.  In  temporal  clauses  with  cum  (521) — 

L  Any  tense  except  the  Imperfect  and  the  Pluperfect  is  put  in  the 
Indicative  : 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  tohile  they  are  silent,  they  approve, 

II.  The  Imperfect  and  Pluperfect  are  put — 

1.  In  the  Indicative,  when  the  temporal  clause  asserts  an  historical 
fact: 

Parult  cum  necesse  erat,  he  obeyed  when  it  was  necessary, 

2.  In  the  Subjunctive,  when  the  temporal  clause  simply  defines  the 
time  of  the  principal  action : 

Cum  epistulam  complicarem,  while  I  was  folding  the  letter. 

LIII.  The  principal  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse  on  becom- 
ing Indirect  take  the  Infinitive  or  Subjunctive  as  follows  (523) : 

I.  When  Declarative,  they  take  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative  : 
Dicehat  animos  esse  divlnos,  he  was  wont  to  say  that  souls  are  divine, 

II.  When  Interrogative,  they  take — 

1.  Generally  the  Subjunctive: 

Ad  postulata  Caesaris  respondit,  quid  sihi  vellet,  cur  veniret,  to  the  de- 
mands of  Caesar  he  replied,  what  did  he  wish,  why  did  he  comef 

2.  Sometimes  the  Infinitive  with  a  Subject  Accusative,  as  in  rhetorical 
questions : 

Docc'hant  rem  esse  testimonio,  etc. ;  quid  esse  levius,  fhey  showed  thai  the 
fact  was  a  proof ,  etc. ;  what  was  more  inconsiderate  f 


333 


RULES   OF  SYNTAX, 


III.  When  Imperative,  they  take  the  Subjunctive : 

Scrlbit  Labieno  cum  legione  veniat,  lie  writes  to  Ldbienus  to  come  (that  he 
should  come)  with  a  legion. 

LIV.  The  subordinate  clauses  of  the  Direct  Discourse,  on  be- 
coming Indirect,  take  the  Subjunctive  (524) : 

Respondit  se  id  quod  in  Ncrvils  fecisset  facturum,  he  replied  that  he  would 
do  what  he  had  done  in  the  case  of  the  Nervii. 

LV.  The  Subjunctive  is  used  (529)— 

I.  In  indirect  questions  : 

Quaeritur,  cur  doctissimi  homines  dissentiant,  it  is  a  question^  why  the 
most  learned  men  disagree. 

II.  Often  in  clauses  dependent  upon  an  Infinitive  or  upon  another  Sub- 
junctive :  ^ 

Nihil  indignius  est  quam  eum  qui  culpa  careat  supplicio  non  carere,  noth- 
ing is  more  shameful  than  that  he  ivJio  is  free  from  fault  should  not  be  ex* 

empt  from  punishment. 

Infinitive. 

LYI.  Many  verbs  admit  an  Infinitive  to  complete  or  qualify  their 
meaning  (533) : 

Haec  vitare  cupimus,  we  desire  to  avoid  these  things. 

LVII.  Many  transitive  verbs  admit  both  an  Accusative'  and  an 
Infinitive  (534): 

Te  sapere  docet,  he  teaches  you  to  be  icise.  ^ 

LYIII.  The  Infinitive  sometimes  takes  an  Accusative  as  its  sub- 
ject (536) : 

Platonem  Tarentum  venisse  reperiO,  I  find  that  Plato  came  to  Tarentum. 

Supine. 

LIX.  The  Supine  in  ^im  is  used  with  verbs  of  motion  to  express 
PURPOSE  (546)  : 

LegatI  venerunt  res  repetitum,  deputies  came  to  demand  restitution. 

LX.  The  Supine  in  u  is  generally  used  as  an  Ablative  of  Speci- 
fication (54T) : 

Quid  est  tarn  jucundum  audita,  what  is  so  agreeable  to  hear  (in  hearing)  ? 

Adverbs. 
LXI.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs 
(551) : 

Sapientes  fgllciter  vivunt,  the  wise  live  happily. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


333 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    WORDS    AND 

^       CLAUSES. 

559.  The  Latin  admits  of  great  variety  in  the  arrangement  of 
the  different  parts  of  the  sentence,  thus  affording  peculiar  facilities 
both  for  securing  proper  emphasis,  and  for  imparting  to  its  periods 
that  harmonious  flow  which  characterizes  the  Latin  classics.  But 
with  all  this  freedom  and  variety,  there  are  certain  general  laws  of 
arrangement  which  it  will  be  useful  to  notice. 

I.  Arrangement  of  Words. 
General  Rules. 

560.  The  Subject  followed  by  its  modifiers  occupies  the  first 
place  in  the  sentence,  and  the  Predicate  preceded  by  its  modifiers 
the  last  place  : 

8ol  oriens  diem  conficit,  tJie  sun  rising  maJces  the  day.  Cic.  Animus  aeger 
semper  errat,  a  diseased  mind  always  errs.  Cic.  Miltiades  Athenas  libera, vit, 
Miltiades  liberated  Athens.   Nep. 

561.  Emphasis  and  Euphony  affect  the  arrangement  of  words. 

L  Any  word,  except  the  subject,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being  placed 
at  the  BEGINNING  of  the  sentence : 

oilant  leges  inter  arma,  laws  are  silent  in  war,  Cic.  Numitbrl  Eemus 
deditur,  Remus  is  delivered  to  Numitor.   Liv. 

II.  Any  word,  except  the  predicate,  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being 
placed  at  the  ENn  of  the  sentence : 

Nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes.,  even  Demosthenes  does  not  satisfy 
tu.  Cic.     Consulatum  petivit  nunquam^  he  never  sought  the  consulship,   Cic. 

III.  Two  words  naturally  connected,  as  a  noun  and  its  adjective,  or  a 
noun  and  its  Genitive,  are  sometimes  made  emphatic  by  Separation  : 

Objurgdtiones  nonnunquam  incidunt  necessdriae^  sometimes  necessary  re- 
proofs occur.  Cic.  Justitiae  fungatur  officils,  let  him  discharge  the  duties  of 
justice.   Cic. 

Note.-— A  word  may  be  made  emphatic  by  being"  placed  between  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound tense : 

Magna  adhibita  cura  est,  great  care  has  been  taken.  Cic. 

662.  Chiasmus.^ — When  two  groups  of  words  are  contrasted, 
the  order  of  the  first  is  often  reversed  in  the  second : 

*  So  called  from  the  Greek  letter  X. 


334 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


Fragile  corpus  animus  sempitemus  movet,  the  imperisliahle  soul  moves  the 
perishable  body,   Cic. 

563.  Kindred  Words. — Different  forms  of  the  same  word,  or 

different  words  of  the  same  derivation,  are  generally  placed  near 

each  other: 

Ad  senem  senex  de  senectute  scripsl,  /,  an  old  man,  wrote  to  an  old  man- 
on  the  subject  of  old  age.  Cic.  Inter  se  aliis  alii  prosunt,  they  benefit  each 
other.   Cic. 

664.  A  word  which  has  a  common  relation  to  two  other  words 
connected  by  conjunctions,  is  placed— 

I.  Generally  before  or  after  both : 

Pacis  et  artes  et  gloria,  both  the  arts  and  the  glory  of  peace,  Liv.  Belli 
pacisque  artes,  the  arts  of  war  and  of  peace.  Liv. 

Note.— A  Genitive  or  an  adjective  following  two  nouns  may  qualify  both,  but  it' 
more  frequently  qualifies  only  the  latter : 

Haec  percunctatio  ac  dOnuntiatiO  belli,  this  inquiry  and  this  declaration  of  war.  Liv.* 

II.  Sometimes  directly  after  the  first  before  the  conjunction : 

Honoris  certamen  et  gloriac,  a  struggle  for  honor  and  glory.  Cic.  Agri 
omnes  et  maria,  all  lands  and  seas,   Cic. 

Special  Rules. 

565.  The  Modifiers  of  a  Noun  generally  follow  it.  They 
may  be  either  adjectives  or  nouns : 

Populus  Romanus  decrevit,  the  Roman  people  decreed.  Cic.  Herodotus, 
pater  historiae,  Herodotus,  the  father  of  history.  Cic.  Liber  de  ofiicys,  t/ic 
hook  on  duties.  Cic. 

1.  Modifiers,  when  emphatic,  are  placed  before  their  nouns  : 

Tuscus  ager  Romano  adjacet,  the  Tuscan  territory  borders  on  the  Roman.  Liv. 

2.  When  a  noun  is  modified  both  by  an  Adjective  and  by  a  Genitive,  the  usual  order 
is,  Adjective — Genitive — noun: 

Magna  civium  puniiria,  a  great  scarcity  of  citizens.  Cic. 

8.  An  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  a  monosyllabic  preposition : 

Magno  cum  perTculo  esse,  to  be  attended  with  great  peril.  Cic 

4.  In  the  poets  an  adjective  is  often  separated  from  its  noun  by  the  modifier  of  another 

noun : 

Insperata  tuae  veniet  pluma  superbiae,  the  unexpected  do2cn  shall  come  upon  your 

pride.  II  or. 

566.  The  Modifiers  of  an  Adjective  generally  precede  it, 
but,  if  not  adverbs,  they  may  follow  it : 

Facile  doctissimus,  ti7i questionably  the  most  learned.  Cic.  Oran!  actuti 
communis,  cominon  to  every  age,  Cic.  Avidus  laudis,  desirous  of  praise, 
Cic. 

567.  The  Modifiers  of  a  Yerr  generally  precede  it ; 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS. 


335 


Gloria  virtutem  sequitur,  glory  follows  mrtue.   Cic.    Mundus  deo  paret, 
the  world  is  subject  to  God.   Cic.    Vehementer  dixit,  he  spoke  vehemently.  Cic. 

1.  When  the  verb  is  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  the  modifiers,  of  course, 
follow;  see  the  first  example  under  561,  L  ,    ^  .^ 

2.  An  emphatic  modifier  may  of  course  stand  at  the  beginmng  or  at  the  end  of  the 

sentence  (561):  .     ,   ^.^ 

Facillime  cognoscuntur  adulescentes,  most  easily  are  the  young  men  recognized.  Cic. 
3   Of  two  or  more  modiAers  belonging  to  the  same  verb,  that  which  m  thought  is 

most  intimately  connected  with  the  verb  stands  next  to  it,  while  the  others  are  arranged 

as  emphasis  and  euphony  may  require :  ^      , .  ^     ^  • 

Mors  propter  brevitatem  vltae  nunquam  longe  abest,  death  is  never  far  distant,  m 

consequence  of  the  shortness  of  life.  Cic. 

568.  The  Modifiers  of  an  Adverb  generally  precede  it,  but 
a  Dative  often  follows  it : 

Valde  vehementer  dixit,   he  spoke  very ^  vehemently.   Cic.     Congruenter 
natarae  vivit,  he  lives  agreeably  to  nature.  Cic. 

569.  Special  Words.— Some  words  have  a  favorite  place  in 
the  sentence,  which  they  seldom  leave.     Thus— 

I.  The  Demonstrative  generally  precedes  its  noun : 

Custos  htijus  urbis,  the  guardian  of  this  city.   Cic. 

1.  Ille  in  the  sense  of  well-known  (450,  4)  generally  follows  its  noun,  if  not  accom- 
panied by  an  adjective : 

MGdea  ilia,  that  icell-knoicn  Medea.  Gc. 

2   Pronouns  are  often  brought  together,  especially  quisque  with  suus  or  sui:  _ 

Justitia  suum  cuique  tvi\>MMJustice  gives  to  every  man  his  due  (his  own).  Cic.    Qui 
scsc  student  praestiirc,  etc.,  who  are  eager  to  excel,  etc.  Sail. 

JI.  Prepositions  generally  stand  directly  before  their  cases,  but  tcnus 
and  versus  follow  their  cases : 

In  Asiam  profugit,  he  fled  into  Asia.   Cic.     Collo  tcnus,  vp  to  fhe  neck.  Ov. 

1.  The  preposition  frequently  follows  the  relative,  sometimes  other  pronouns,  and 
sometimes  even  nouns,  especially  in  poetry :  ^        *.  ,.  <.  -       .„ 

RGs  qua  de  agitar,  the  subject  of  which  we  are  treating.  Cic.  Italiam  contra,  ocer 
against  Italy.  Verg.    Corpus  in  Aeacidae,  into  the  body  of  Aeacides.  Verg. 

2    For  cum  appended  to  an  Ablative,  see  184,  6;  187,  2. 

8*  Genitives,  adverbs,  and  a  few  other  words  sometimes  stand  between  the  preposi- 
tion and  its  case.    In  adjurations  per  is  usually  separated  from  its  case  by  the  Accusa- 
ive  of  the  object  adjured,  or  by  some  other  word ;  and  sometimes  the  vei^ -^  omitted^ 

Post  Alexandrl  magni  mortem,  ^^er  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great  Cic.  Ad 
bene  vivendum,  for  iLing  well.  Cic.  Per  ego  has  lacrimas  te  orO,  I  implore  you  by 
^se  tears.  Verg.  Per  ego  vos  deos  (=  per  der>s  ego  vos  orO),  I  pray  you  in  the  name 
of  the  gods.  Curt. 

Ill  Conjunctions  and  Rdaiives,  when  they  introduce  clauses,  generally 
stand  at  the  beginning  of  such  clauses ;  but  autem,  enim,  quidem,  quoq^^, 
verO,  and  generally  igitur,  follow  some  other  word : 

SI  peccftvl,  Ignosce,  if  I  have  erred,  pardon  me.   Cic.    ll  qui  superior:  s 


836 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 


sunt,  tTiose  who  are  superior.  Cic.    Ipse  aiitem  omnia  videbat,  hut  Tie  himself 
saw  all  things.   Cic. 

1.  A  conjunction  may  follow  a  relative  or  an  emphatic  word,  and  a  relative  may  follow 
an  emphatic  word : 

Id  ut  audivit,  as  he  heard  this.  Nep.  Quae  cum  ita  sint,  since  these  things  are  so. 
Cic.    Trojae  qui  primus  ab  Oris  venit,  who  came  first  from  the  shores  of  Troy.  Verg. 

Note. — Certain  conjunctions,  as  et^  nee,  sed,  and  even  aut  and  re/,  are  more  frequently 
removed  from  the  beginning  of  the  clause  in  poetry  than  in  prose  : 

Compressus  et  omnis  impetus,  and  all  molence  was  checked.  Verg. 

2.  Ke—quidem  takes  the  emphatic  word  or  words  between  the  two  parts : 
Ne  in  oppidis  quidem,  not  even  in  the  towns.  Cic. 

8.  Quidem  often  MXosvs pronouns,  superlatives,  and  ordinals: 
Ex  mo  quidem  nihil  audiet,  from,  me  indeed  he  will  hear  nothing.  Cic. 
4.  Que,  ve,  ne.  Introducing  a  clause  or  phrase,  are  generally  appended  to  the  first 
word;  but  if  that  word  is  a  preposition,  they  are  often  appended  to  the  next  word  : 
In  for oque,  and  in  the  forum.  Cic.    Inter  uosqne,  a?id  among  us.  Cic. 

IV.  Noriy  when  it  qualifies  some  single  word,  stands  directly  before  that 
word ;  but  when  it  is  particularly  emphatic,  or  qualifies  the  entire  clause, 
it  sometimes  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause,  and  sometimes  before 
the  finite  verb  or  before  the  auxiliary  of  a  compound  tense : 

Hac  villa  carere  non  possunt,  the?/  are  not  able  to  do  without  this  villa.  Cic. 
Non  fuit  Juppiter  metuendus,  Jupiter  was  not  to  be  feared.  Cic.  Fas  n6n 
putant,  the?/  do  not  think  it  7'ight.  Cic.  Pecunia  soluta  non  est,  the  money 
has  not  been  paid.   Cic. 

1.  In  general,  in  negative  clauses  the  negative  word,  whether  particle,  verb,  or  noun, 
is  made  prominent: 

Negat  quemquam  posse,  he  denies  that  any  one  is  able.  Cic.  Nihil  est  melius, 
noVcing  is  better.  Cic. 

V.  Liquam,  sometimes  aio,  introducing  a  quotation,  follows  one  or  more 
of  the  words  quoted.    The  subject,  if  expressed,  generally  follows  its  verb : 

Nihil,  inquit  Brutus,  quod  dicam,  nothing  which  I  shall  state^  said  Brutus, 
Cic. 

VI.  The  Vocative  rarely  stands  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence.  It 
usually  follows  an  emphatic  word : 

Perge,  Laeli,  proceed^  Laelius.   Cic. 

II.  Arrangement  of  Clauses. 

570.  Clauses  connected  by  coordinate  conjunctions  (554)  fol- 
low each  other  in  the  natural  order  of  the  thought,  as  in  English : 

Sol  ruit  et  montes  umbrantur,  the  sun  hastens  to  its  setting^  and  the  moun- 
tains are  shaded.  Verg.  Gjges  a  nullo  videbatur,  ipse  autem  omnia  videbat, 
Gyges  was  seen  by  no  one^  but  he  himself  saw  all  things.  Cic. 

671.  A  clause  used  as  the  Subject  of  a  complex  sentence  (318) 
generally  stands  at  the  beginning  of  the  sentence,  and  a  clause  used 
as  the  Predicate  at  the  end : 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  CLAUSES. 


337 


^  Quid  dies  ferat  incertum  est,  what  a  day  may  bring  forth  is  uncertain.  Cic. 
Exitus  fuit  orationis,  sib!  nullam  cum  his  amicitiam  esse,  the  close  of  the  ora- 
tion was,  that  he  had  no  friendship  with  these  men.   Caes. 

1.  This  arrangement  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  simple  sentence;  see  560. 

2.  Emphasis  and  euphony  often  have  the  same  effect  upon  the  arrangement  of  clauses 
as  upon  the  arrangement  of  words ;  see  661. 

572.  Clauses  used  as  the  Subordinate  Elements  of  complex 
sentences  admit  three  different  arrangements  : 

I.  They  are  generally  inserted  within  the  principal  clause,  like  the  sub- 
ordinate elements  of  a  simple  sentence : 

Ilostes,  ubi  primum  nostros  equites  conspexerunt,  celeriter  nostros  per- 
turbaverunt,  the  enemy.,  as  soon  as  they  saw  our  cavalry,  quickly  put  our  m^n 
to  rout.  Caes.  Sententia,  quae  tutisshna  videbatur,  vicit,  tlie  opinion  which 
seemed  the  safest  prevailed.  Li  v. 

II.  They  are  often  placed  before  the  principal  clause ; 

Cum  quiescunt,  probant,  while  they  are  quiet,  they  approve.  Cic.  Qualis 
sit  animus,  animus  nescit,  the  soul  knows  not  what  the  soul  is.   Cic. 

Note.— This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  cither  refers 
back  to  the  preceding  sentence,  or  is  preparatory  to  the  thought  of  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  temporal,  conditional,  and  concessive  clauses  often  precede  the  principal  clause. 
Hence  also,  in  sentences  composed  of  correlative  clauses  with  is— qui,  tdli%— qualis., 
tantus-^uantus,  turn— cum,  ita—ut,  etc.,  the  relative  member,  i.  e.,  the  clause  with 
qui,  qudUs,  quantum,  cum,  ut,  etc.,  generally  precedes. 

III.  They  sometimes  follow  the  principal  clause : 

Enititur  ut  vincat,  he  strives  that  he  may  conquer.  Cic.  Sol  efficit  ut  omnia 
floreaiit,  the  sun  causes  all  things  to  bloom.    Cic. 

Note.— This  arrangement  is  generally  used  when  the  subordinate  clause  is  either 
intimately  connected  in  thought  with  the  following  sentence,  or  explanatory  of  the  prin- 
cipal clause.  Hence,  clauses  of  Purpose  and  Result  generally  follow  the  principal  clause, 
as  in  the  examples. 

673.  Latin  Periods. — A  complex  sentence  in  which  two  or 
more  subordinate  clauses  are  inserted  within  the  principal  clause  is 
called  a  Period  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term. 

Note  1.— The  examples  given  under  67»,  I.,  are  short  and  simple  examples  of  Latin 
Periods. 

Note  2.— Many  Latin  periods  consist  of  several  carefully  constructed  clauses  so  united 
as  to  form  one  complete  harmonious  whole.  For  examples,  see  Cicero*8  Third  Oration 
against  Catiline,  XII.,  '8ed  quoniam  .  .  .  providere';  also  Livy,  I.,  6,  'Numitor,  inter 
primum  .  .  .  ostendit.' 

Note  3. — In  a  freer  sense  the  term  Period  is  sometimes  applied  to  all  complex  sen- 
tences which  end  with  principal  clauses.  In  this  sense  the  examples  given  under  67JJ, 
II.,  are  Periods.  Many  carefully  elaborated  Latin  sentences  are  constructed  in  this  way ; 
see  Cicero's  Oration  for  the  Poet  Archias,  I., '  Quod  si  haec  .  .  .  debemus ' ;  also  the  Firs| 
Oration  against  Catiline,  XIII.,  *  Ut  saepe  homines  .  .  .  iiigravescet.' 

16 


338 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


V  / 


PART  FOURTH. 
PROSODY. 


674.  Prosody  treats  of  Quantity  and  Versification. 


•4<^»-^ 


X: 


OHAPTEE     I. 
QUANTITY. 

675.  The  time  occupied  in  pronouncing  a  syllable  in  poetry 
is  called  its  quantity.^  Syllables  are  accordingly  characterized  as 
longy  shorty  or  common,^ 


I.  General  Rules  of  Quantity. 

676.  A  syllable  is  Lokg  t^  Quai^tity — 

/V     I.  If  it  contains  a  Diphtho:n^g,  or  is  the  result  of  CoiT- 
TRACTio:Nr : 

haec,  foedus,  aura ;  cogo  {for  coigO),  occldo  {for  occaedo),  nil  {for  nihil). 
1.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  vraeacutus» 

^    II.  If  its  vowel  is  followed  by  J,  X,  or  Z,  or  any  Two 
/%  Co2srsoNANTS  except  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : ' 

major,  dux,  servns,  sunt,  regunt,  regnum,  agmcn. 

1.  But  one  or  both  of  the  consonants  must  belong  to  the  same  word  as  the 
vowel :  ah  *  sede^  per  *  saxa. 

Note  1. — II  has  no  tendency  in  combination  with  any  consonant  to  lengthen  a  pre- 
ceding syllable.    Hence  in  such  words  as  Achaeus,  Athenae,  the  first  syllable  is  short. 

Note  2.~In  the  early  poets  a  short  final  syllable  ending  in  s  remained  short  before 
1  word  beginning  with  a  consonant ;  sometimes  also  short  final  syllables  ending  in  other 
consonants  :  imdginisformamy  enim  vero^  erat  dicto.^ 


1  In  many  cases  the  quantity  of  syllables  may  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary, 
bat  in  others  the  student  may  be  greatly  aided  by  certain  general  statements  or  rules. 

2  That  is,  sometimes  long  and  sometimes  short 

3  Here  the  syllable  is  long  by  nature  if  the  vowel  is  long,  but  long  only  ty  position 
if  the  vowel  is  short.  For  the  quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants  or  a  double  con- 
sonant, see  651. 

*  Here  ab  becomes  long  before  «  in  sede^  and  per  before  8  In  saxa, 

*  Here  the  syllables  2«,  im^  and  at  remain  short. 


\        \ 


•339 


RIN^  OF  QUANTITY. 

Note  8.— In  the  early  poets  many  syllables  long  by  position  in  the  Augustan  poets 
are  sometimes  short,  as  the  first  syllable  of  ecce^  ergo^  ille^  inter^  omnis,  unde^  vjxor. 

Note  4. — ^A  final  syllable  ending  in  a  vowel  is  occasionally,  though  rarely,  lengthened 
by  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  the  following  word. 

Note  5. — In  Greek  words  a  syllable  with  a  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a  nasal  Is  some- 
times short :  cycnuSy  Tecmessa. 

2.  In  the  compounds  ofjugum^  the  syllable  before ^  is  short;  lijugus, 

y'  577.  A  syllable  is  Short  I]^  Quai^tity  if  its  vowel  is 
followed  in  the  same  word  by  another  Vowel,  by  a  Diph- 
THON'G,  or  by  the  aspirate  H  : 

dies,  doceO,  viae,  nihil. 

I.  The  following  vowels,  with  the  syllables  which  contain  them,  are 
long  by  Exception  : 

1.  A — (1)  in  the  Genitive  ending  di  of  Dec.  I. :  aulai ;  (2)  in  proper 
names  in  aiu8 :  Gdius  (Gajus) ;  (3)  before  la,  «V,  to,  iu,  in  the  verb  did, 

2.  £j — (1)  in  the  ending  el  of  Dec.  V.  when  preceded  by  a  vowel :  diet ; 
and  sometimes  when  preceded  by  a  consonant :  fidel^  rei ;  often  in  the  Da- 
tive Singular  of  the  pronoun  w ;  ex ;  (2)  in  proper  names  in  eixis :  Pom- 
peius  ;  (3)  in  eheu^  and  in  Rhea} 

3.  I — (1)  in  the  verb  /lo,  when  not  followed  by  er:  flam^  fleham^  but 
fieri  /^  (2)  in  dlus^  «,  um  (for  divus,  a,  um)\  (3)  generally  in  the  Genitive 
ending  iits :  alius^  illius  ;  (4)  sometimes  in  JDidna, 

4.  O — sometimes  in  6he. 

5.  In  Greek  words  vowels  are  often  long  before  a  vowel,  because  long 
in  the  original :  aer,  Aeiieds^  Brlseis,  Meneldus^  Trdes, 


if 


Note.— This  often  occurs  in  proper  names  in  ea,  la,  etts,  lus,  don,  Ion,  die,  ois, 
divs:  Medea,  Alexandria,  Feneus,  Ddrlua,  Orlcn. 

578.  A  syllable  is  Common"  ii!^"  Quantity  if  its  vowel, 
naturally  short,  is  followed  by  a  mute  and  a  liquid  : 

ager,  agri ;  pater,  patris ;  duplex,  triplex. 

Note  1. — A  syllable  ending  in  a  mute  in  the  first  part  of  a  compound  before  a  liquid 
at  the  beginning  of  the  second  part  is  long :  db-rumpo,  ob-rogo. 

Note  2.— In  Plautus  and  Terence  a  syllable  with  a  short  vowel  before  a  mute  and  a 
liquid  is  short. 

II.  Quantity  of  Final  Syllables. 
y^  579.  Monosyllables  are  long  : 

S,  da,  te,  se,  de,  si,  qui,  dO,  pr5,  tu,  dos,  pes,  sis,  bos,  sus,  par,  sol. 

1  The  name  of  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  and  of  a  priestess  in  Vergil.  In  Rhea,  anoth- 
er name  for  CybeU,  the  e  is  short. 

'^  Sometimes  fieri  in  PJantus  and  Terence. 


/* 


I . 


340 


RULES   OF  QUANTITY. 


I.  The  following  are  short  by  Exception  : 

1.  Enclitics :  que^  ve,  ne^  ce,  (c,  pse^  ptc, 

^2.  Monosyllables  in  b,  d,  1,  m,  t:  ah,  ad.fel,  mm,  et ;  except  55/,  b61, 

3.  An,  his,  cis,  cor,  cs,fac,fc7^,  in,  is,  nee,  os  (ossis),  pe7%  ier,  qua  (indef- 
inite), quis,  vir,  vas  (vadis),  and  sometimes  Mc  and  hOc  in  the  Nominative 
and  Accusative. 

680.  In  words  of  more  than  one  syllable — 

^I.  The  final  vowels  i,  o,  and  u  are  long;  a,  e,  and  y, 
short:* 

marl,  audi,  servo,  omnino,  fructu,  comu ;  via,  maria,  mare,  misy. 

^  II.  Final  syllables  in  c  are  long ;  in  d,  I,  m,  n,  r,  t,  short : 

alec,  illiic ;  illud,  consul,  amem,  cannen,  amor,  caput. 

Note  1. — Donee  and  lien  are  exceptions. 

NoTB  2.— Final  syllables  in  n  and  r  are  long  in  many  Greek  words  which  end  long  in 
the  original:  as  Titan,  Anchlsen,  Hymen,  Delphln,  air,  aether,  crater, 

III.  The  final  syllables  as,  es,  and  os  are  long ;  is,  us, 
ys,  short  : 

amas,  mensas,  mones,  nub^s,  servos ;  avis,  urbis,  bonus,  chlamys. 

Note  1.— The  learner  will  remember  that  short  final  syllables  like  is,  us,  etc.,  may  be 
lengthened  by  being  placed  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  consonant;  see  576,  II. 

Note  2.— Plautus  retains  the  original  quantity  of  many  final  syllables  usually  jLiort  in 
the  Augustan  age.  Thus  the  endings  a,  e,  al,  ar,  or.  Is,  Us,  at,  et.  It,  often  stanch  place 
of  the  later  endings  a,  e,  al,  ar-or,  is,  us,  at,  et,  it  (21).  Some  of  these  eaiSfcrms 
are  retained  by  Terence,  and  some  of  them  occasionally  occur  in  the  Augustan  p^ts. 

Note  3.— Plautus  and  Terence,  in  consequence  of  the  colloquial  character  of  comedy, 
often  shorten  unaccented  final  syllables  after  an  accented  short  syllable :  ama,  dbi, 
dedi,  domi,  domo,  mro,  pedes. 

Note  4.— In  Plautus  and  Terence  the  doubling  of  a  letter  does  not  usually  affect  the 
quantity  of  the  syllable :  II  in  ille,  mm  in  imnw,  pp  in  oppoi'tune, 

681.  Numerous  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  the 
quantity  of  final  syllables  occur  even  in  classical  Latin: 

I.  I  Jinal,  usually  long,  is  sometimes  short  or  common — 

1.  Short  in  7iisi,  quasi,  cui  (when  a  dissyllable),  and  in  the  Greek  ending 
si  of  the  Dative  and  Ablative  Plural. 

2.  Common  in  mihl,  tibi,  siht,  ihi,  uU^  and  in  the  Dative  and  Vocative 
Singular  of  some  Greek  words. 

11.  O  final,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  duo,  ego,  octo,  eJio,  in  the  adverbs  cUo,  llico,  modo,  and  its  compounds, 
d/ummodo,  quomodo,  etc.,  in  cedo,  and  in  the  old  form  endo, 

^  Uis  short  in  indu  and  nlnu.    Contracted  syllables  are  long,  according  to  676, 1. 


I 


ES   UF  QUJ^TlTY, 


341 


2.  Sometimes  (1) 
rarely  in  the  best  poets. 


in  nouns  of  Detj,  III.  and  (2)  i 


(2)  in  verbs,  though  very 


^  III.  K  final,  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  the  Abmtive :  mHinsd,  bond,  Hid, 

2.  In  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as :  Aeiied,  Palld,^ 

3.  In  Verbs  and  Particles :  amd,  curd  ;  circa,  juxtdj  anted^  frudrd.  Ex- 
cept iba,  quia,  eja,  heja,  and  puta  used  adverbially. 

IV.  Zj  final,  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  Dec.  I.  and  V.,^  and  in  Greek  plurals  of  Dec.  III. :  epitonie  ;  re,  die  ; 
tempe,  mele, 

2.  Generally  in  the  Dative  ending  I  of  Dec.  III. :  aerl  =  aerl, 

3.  In  the  Singular  Imperative  Active  of  Conj.  II. :  mone^  doce.  But  e  is 
sometimes  short  in  cav^,  vidl,  etc.^ 

4.  In  fere,  ferme,  6he,  and  in  adverbs  from  adjectives  of  Dec.  II. ;  docte^ 
recte.    Except  bene,  male,  inferne^  interne,  superne. 

V.  As  final,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  anas  and  in  a  few  Greek  nouns  in  as :  Areas,  lampas, 

2.  In  Greek  Accusatives  of  Dec.  III. :  Arcadas,  Jieroas, 

VI.  XjS  final,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  Nominatives  Singular  of  Dec.  III.  with  short  increment  (583)  in 
the  Genitive :  miles  (itis),  obses  (idis),  interpres  (etis).  Except  abies,  aries^ 
paries,  Ceres,  and  compounds  of  pes,  as  bipes,  tripes,  etc. 

2.  In  penes  and  the  compounds  ofes,  as  ades,  poles, 

3.  In  Greek  words — (1)  in  the  plural  of  those  which  increase  in  the  Geni- 
tive: Arcad-es,  Troades  ;  (2)  in  a  few  neuters  in  es:  Hippomenes ;  (3)  in  a 
few  Vocatives  Singular :  Demosthenes, 

VII.  Os  final,  usually  long,  is  short — 

1.  In  compos,  impos,  exos, 

2.  In  Greek  words  with  the  ending  short  in  the  Greek :  Delos,  melos, 

VIII.  Is  final,  usually  short,  is  long — 

Wl.  In  plural  cases :  mensis,  servis,  vobls.    Hence  /oris,  grdtis,  ingrdtls, 

2.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasing  long  in  the  Genitive :  Quiris 
(Itis),  Salamls^  (Inis). 

3.  In  the  Singular  Present  Indie.  Act.  of  Conj.  IV. :  audls. 

Note. — Mavis,  qulvls,  utervls,  follow  the  quantity  of  vis, 

4.  In  the  Singular  Present  Subj.  Act. :  possls,  'veils,  noUs,  mdlis, 

1  Sometimes  in  the  Vocative  of  Greek  nouns  in  as  and  es. 
3  Hence,  in  the  compounds,  hodie^  prldie,  postrldie,  qud/re, 

*  In  the  comic  poets  many  dissyllabic  Imperatives  with  a  short  penult  shorten  the 
ultimate:  as  Tiabe,  jube,  mane,  move^  tace,  tene,  etc. 


342 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


343 


y 


5.  Sometimes  in  the  Singular  of  the  Future  Perfect  and  of  the  Perfect 
Subjunctive :  amdverfs,  docuerU. 

IX.  Us  Jinal,  usually  short,  is  long — 

1.  In  Nominatives  of  Dec.  III.  increasmg  long  in  the  Genitive :  t^irtus 
(utis),  tellus  (uris). 

moTH.— But  palua  (u  short)  occurs  in  Horace,  Ars  Poetica,  65. 

2.  In  Dec.  IV.,  in  the  Genitive  Singular,  and  in  the  Nominative,  Accusa- 
tive, and  Vocative  Plural :  friictm, 

3.  In  Greek  words  ending  long  in  the  original :  Panthus^  Sapphus,  tripus. 
Note.— But  we  have  Oedipus  and  polypus, 

III.  Quantity  in  Increments. 
682.  A  word  is  said  to  increase  in  declension,  when  it  has  in 
any  case  more  syllables  than  in  the  Nominative  Singular,  and  to 
have  as  many  increments  of  declension  as  it  has  additional  syllables : 
sermo,  sermonis,  sermonibus,^ 

583.  A  verb  is  said  to  increase  in  conjugation,  when  it  has  in 
any  part  more  syllables  than  in  the  second  person  singular  of  the 
Present  Indicative  Active,  and  to  have  as  many  increments  of  cmju- 
gation  as  it  has  additional  syllables :  amds,  amdtis,  amal}dtis,'' 

584.  If  there  is  but  one  increment,  it  is  uniformly  the  penult ; 
if  there  are  more  than  one,  they  are  the  penult  with  the  requisite 
number  of  syllables  before  it.  The  increment  nearest  the  begin- 
ning of  the  word  is  called  the  first  increment,  and  those  following 
this  are  called  successively  the  second,  tliird,  sjid  fourth  increments.' 

Increments  of  Declension, 

585.  In  the  Increments  of  Declension,  a  and  o  are  long ; 
e,  i,  u,  and  y,  short :  *  ^^^ 

aetas,  aetatis,  aetatibus ;  serm6,  sermOnis ;  puer,  pueri,  puerOrum^;  fulgur, 
fulguris ;  chlamys,  chlamydis ;  bonus,  bonarum,  bonorum ;  ille,  illarum,  il- 
lorum ;  miser,  miseri ;  supplex,  supplicis ;  satur,  saturt. 

I.  A,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  short  in  the  first 
increment — * 


»  Sermonis,  having  one  syllabic  more  than  sermd,  has  one  increment,  while  serm^ni- 
bus  has  two  increments. 


'  Amdtia  has  one  increment,  amdhdUa  two. 


12    3 


3  In  ser^mon-i-bus,  the  first  increment  is  mon,  the  second  i  ;  and  in  mon-u-e-rd-mus 
the  first  is  u,  the  second  e,  the  third  rd,  ' 

*  Y  occm-s  only  in  Greek  words,  and  is  long  in  the  increments  of  nouns  In  vn  and  of 
a  few  others. 

*  Observe  that  the  exceptions  belong  to  the  first  increment. 


4 


t 


•^    1.  Of  masculines  in  aZ  and  or ;  Hannibal,  Eannihalis ;  Caesar,  Caesaris. 

2.  Of  nouns  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant  i^ops,  dapis ;  Arahs,  Arabis  ; 

hiems,  hiemis. 

3.  Of  Greek  nouns  in  a  and  as  :  poema,  poematis  ;  Pallas,  Palladis, 

4.  Of  (1)  baccar,  Tiepar,  juhar,  Idr,  nectar,  par,  and  its  compounds ;  (2) 
anas,  mas,  ms  (vadis) ;  (3)  sal,  fax,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words  in  ax. 

**     II.  O,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  short  in  the  first 
increment —  * 

1.  Of  Neuters  in  Declension  III.:  aequor,  aequoris ;  tempus,  temporls. 
Except  OS  (oris),  ador  (adoris),  and  comparatives. 

2.  Of  words  in  s  preceded  by  a  consonant;  i?iops,  inopis.    Except  Cyclops 

and  hydrops^  j^  ^^ 

—  3.  Of  arbor,  bos,  lepxis ;  compos,  impos,  memor,  immemor  ;  Allobrox,  Cap- 

padox,  praecox. 

4.  Of  most  Patrials  :  MacedS,  Macedonis. 

6.  Of  many  Greek  nouns— (1)  those  in  or:  rUtor,  Hector ;  (2)  many  in  0 
and  on  increasing  short  in  Greek ;  a£ddn,  aedonis;  (3)  in  Greek  compounds 
in  pus  or  pus:  tripus  {odis),  Oedipus. 

^.      III.  E,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 
first  increment — 

1.  Of  Declension  V. :  diei,  dierum,  diebus,  rebus.    But  in  the  Genitive  and 
^  Dative  Singular  sometimes  short  after  a  consonant :  fidU,  spU, 

2.  Of  nouns  in  en,  mostly  Greek:  lien,  lienis;  Siren,  Slrenis.    So  Anio, 

Anienis.  *  I  .  •        i  a 

3.  Of  Celtiber,  Iber,  ver,  heres,  locuples,  merces,  quies,  inquies,  requies,  pMs, 

lex,  rex,  alec,  dlex,  Derv^. 

4.  Of  a  few  Greek  words  in  es  and  er:  lebes,  lebetis  ;  crater,  crdteris.  Ex- 
cept der  and  aetlier, 

rV.  I,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 
first  increment —         V 
^1.  Of  most  words  in  ix.'  radix,  rddlcis  ;  feVlXyfellcis? 

2.  Oidls,  glls,  lis,  i^,  QuirU,  Samnls, 

3.  Of  delphln,  and  a  few  rare  Greek  words. 
Note.— For  quantity  of  !  in  the  ending  iu^,  see  577, 8. 

V.  U,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  declension,  is  long  in  the 

40/^  first  increment — 

1.  Of  nouns  in  us  with  the  Genitive  in  uris,  utis,  udis  :  jus,  juris;  salus, 
salutis  ;  palus,  paludis.^ 

2.  Oifur,frux,  lux,  plus,  Pollux.  ^ 

1  See  p.  842,  foot-note  6. 

a  But  short  in  appendix,  caUx,  Cilix,  flix,  fornix,  nix,  pix,  salix,  sirix,  and  a 

few  others,  chiefly  proper  names. 

8  But  short  in  intercus,  Ligus,  pecus. 


/ 


344 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


RULES   OF  QUANTITY, 


345 


Increments  of  Conjugation, 

586.  In  the  Increments  of  Conjugation  (583),  a,  e,  and 
O  are  long  ;  i  and  u  short  : 

amamus,  amemus,  amatote  ;  regimus,  sumus. 

Note  l.-In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  the  irregular  verbs,/^r5,  toIo,  and  their 
compounds,  the  full  form  of  the  second  person,  feris,  volis,  etc.,  must  be  used.  Thus 
in  ferebam  and  voUbam^  the  increments  are  re  and  U, 

Note  2.— In  ascertaining  the  increments  of  reduplicated  forms  (355,  I.),  the  re- 
duplication is  not  counted.    Thus  dedimua  has  but  one  increment,  di. 

I.  A,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  short  in  the 
first  increment  of  do :  dare,  dabam,  circumdabam. 

II.  B,  usually  long  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  short  before  r— 

1.  In  the  tenses  in  ram^  rim,  rO  :  amdveram^  amdverim,  amdverO  :  rexerat 

rexerit.  ' 

2.  In  the  first  increment  of  the  Present  and  Imperfect  of  Conjugation  III.  : 
regere,  regeris,  regerem,  regerer, 

3.  In  the  Future  ending  heris,  here  :  amdberis  or  -ere,  moneberis. 

4.  Earely  in  the  Perfect  ending  erunt :  steterunt  for  steterunt ;  see  236 
note ;  also  Systole,  608,  VI.  ' 

III.  I,  usually  SHORT  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  long,  except 
before  a  vowel — 

1.  In  the  first  increment  of  Conjugation  IV.,  except  imus  of  the  Perfect : 
audlre,  audlvl,  audltum  ;  sentlre,  sentimus  ;  sensimns  (Perfect). 

2.  In  Conjugation  III.,  in  the  first  increment  of  Perfects  and  Supines  in 
ivl  and  Uum  (378),  and  of  the  parts  derived  from  them  (except  imus  of 
the  Perfect:  tnvimus) :  cupivl,  cuplverat,  cupltus  ;  petlvl,  peiUus;  eapessivL 
capessUurus.     advmis  from  gauded  follows  the  same  analogy. 

3.  In  the  endings  imm  and  itis  of  the  Present  Subjunctive :  slmus,  sUis  : 
vellmusj  velUis  (240,  3). 

4.  In  noUte,  nolUd,  nblltote,  and  in  the  diiferent  persona  of  Ibam,  ibo  from 

eo  (395).  ' 

5.  Sometimes  in  the  endings  rfmus  and  r^tis  of  the  Future  Perfect  and 
Perfect  Subjunctive :  amdverimus,  amdveritis, 

IV.  U,  usually  short  in  the  increments  of  conjugation,  is  long  in  the 
Supine  and  the  parts  formed  from  it :  volutum,  voluiurus,  amdiurus. 

IV.  Quantity  op  Derivative  Endings. 

587.  The  most  important  derivative  endings  may  be  classified 
according  to  quantity  as  follows  : 

I.  Derivative  endings  with  a  Long  Penult  : 
1.  abrum,  acrum,  atrum : 
flabrum,  simulacrum,  aratrum. 


_      y 


2.  ed6,  ido,  ud6 ;  ag8,  Ig6,  ug6 : 
dulcedo,  cupido,  solitudo  ;  vorago,  orlgo,  aerugo. 

3.  ais,  eis,  ois,  otis,  ine,  one — in  patronymics :  ^ 
Ptolemais,  Chryseis,  MinOis,  Icariotis,  Nerine,  Acrisione. 

4.  ela,  He ;  alls,  elis,  ulis : 

querela,  ovile ;  mortalis,  fidelis,  curulis. 

5.  anus,  enus,  onus,  unus ;  ana,  ena,  ona,  una : 

urbanus,  egenus,  patronus,  tribunus;  membrSna,  habena,  annona,  la- 
cuna. 

6.  aris,  arus ;  orus,  5sus ;  avus,  Ivus : 

salutaris,  avarus ;  canorus,  animosus  ;  octavus,  aestivus. 

7.  atus,  etus,  itus,  otus,  utus ;  atim,  itim,  utim ;  etum,  eta : « 
alatus,  f acetiis,  turrltus,  aegrotus,  cornutus ;  singulatim,  virltim,  tribu- 

tim ;  quercetum,  moneta. 

8.  enX,  ini,  oni — in  distributives : 
septeni,  qulni,  octoni. 

II.  Derivative  endings  with  a  Short  Penult — 

1.  ades,  iades,  ides — in  patronymics  :  ^ 
Aeneades,  Laertiades,  TantalidOs. 

2.  iacus,  icus,  idus :  * 

Corinthiacus,  modicus,  cupidus. 

3.  olus,  ola,  oliun ;  ulus,  ula,  ulum ;  cuius,  cula,  culum— m  diminu- 
tives : 

filiolus,  flliola,  atriolum ;  hortulus,  virgula,  oppidulum ;  flosculus,  par- 

ticula,  munusculum. 

4.  etas,  itas— in  7ioum  ;  iter,  itus — in  adverbs  : 
pietas,  Veritas ;  fortiter,  divlnitus. 

5.  atilis,  ilis,  bilis — in  verbals;  inus— m  adjectives  denoting  material 

or  time:^ 

versatilis,  docilis,  amabilis ;  adamantinus,  cedrinus,  crastinus,  diutinus. 

Note  1.— Ilis  in  adjectives  from  nouns  usually  has  the  penult  long :  clvllis,  hostlUs, 

puerllis^  mrilis. 

Note  2.— Inus  denoting  characteristic  (330)  usually  has  the  penult  long :  canlnus, 

egulnris^  marlnus.  _^^____ 

1  Except  Danais^  PhocaiSj  TMhais^  NerUs. 

2  Except  (1)  anUlitus,  /ortuitus,  grdtuitus,  Jidlitus,  lioapitus,  splritus ;  (2)  adfa- 
tint,  statim,  and  adverbs  in  itus,  as  divlnitus;  and  (3)  participles  provided  for  by  586. 

3  Except  (1)  those  in  Ides  from  nouns  in  eus  and  es :  as,  Pelld^s  (Peleus),  Neo- 
clldes  (Neocles) ;  and  (2)  Amphiardldes,  Amydides,  Belldes,  Coronldes,  Lycurgldes, 

*  Except  amicus,  antlcus,  aprlcus,  mendlcus,  posticus,  pudlcus, 

*  Except  mdtutlnus,  repentlnus,  'vespertlnus. 


346 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


III.  Derivative  endings  with  a  Long  Antepenttlt  : 

1.  aceus,  uceus,  aneus,  arius,  arium,  drius : 

rosaceus,  pannuceus,  subitaneus,  cibarius,  columbarium,  censorius. 

2.  abundus,  acundus ;  abiKs,  atilis,  aticus  : 
mirabundus,  Iracundus  ;  amabilis,  versatilis,  aquaticus. 

3.  aginta,  Iginti,  esimus — in  numerals: 
nonaginta,  viginti,  centesimus. 

4.  imonia,  imonium ;  torius,  sorius ;  toria,  torium : 
querimonia,  alimonium ;  amatorius,  censorius ;  victoria,  auditorium. 
IV.  Derivative  endings  with  a  Short  Antepenult  : 

1.  ibilis,  itud6,  olentus,  ulentus: 
credibilis,  solitudo,  vinolentus,  opulentus. 

2.  urio — in  dcsideratives  : 
esurio,  empturio,  parturio. 

V.  Quantity  of  Stem-Syllables. 

588.  All  simple  verbs  in  id  of  the  Third  Conjugation  (217) 
have  the  stem-syllable  ^  short : 

capio,  cupio,  facio,  fodio,  fugio. 

589.  Most  verbs  which  form  the  Perfect  in  ul  have  the  stem- 
syllable  short : 

domo,  seco,  habeo,  moneO,  alo,  colo. 

KoTE.-Pono,  debeb.Jlbreb.'parm,  and  several  inceptive  verbs,  are  exceptions. 

590.  Dissyllabic  Perfects  and  Supines  have  the  first  syllable 
long,  unless  short  by  position : 

juvo,  juvl,  jutum ;  fovco,  fovi,  fotum. 

1.  Eight  Perfects  and  ten  Supines  have  the  first  syllable  short : 
lihl,  dedl,  Jidl,  liqul,'^  scidl,  Ml,  still,  full;  citum,  datum,  itum,  lUum. 
quitum,  ratum,  rutum,  satum,  situm,  statum,'^ 

591.  Trisyllabic  Reduplicated  Perfects  have  the  first  two  syl- 
lables short : 

cade,  cecidi;  canO,  cecini;  disc5,  didicL 

Note  \.—Caedd  has  cecldl  in  distinction  from  cecidi  from  cado 

Note  2.-The  second  syllable  may  be  made  long  by  position  :  cmiurrl,  momordl, 

592.  In  general,  inflected  forms  retain  the  quantity  of  stem-syl- 
lables  unchanged :  ^ 


1  That  is,  the  syllable  preceding  the  characteristic. 

I  Uqul  from  liqueo;  linquo  has  llqul.    Statum  from  aiato;  eto  has  atdtum 

'  But  see  DUayllahic  Perfects  and  Supines,  590. 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 


347 


avis,avem;  nabes,  nubium ;  levis,  levior,  Icvissitnus;  moneo,  monebam, 
monul. 

Note  l.-Position  may, however,  affect  the  quantity:  ager,  agrl;  possum,  potul; 
solvo,  solutum ;  toIco,  Dolutum^ 

Note  2.—Gignd  gives  genui,  gentium,  and  pond,  posut,  positwn. 

593.  Derivatives  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  the  stem-syl- 
lables of  their  primitives : 

bonus,  bonitas ;  tiraeo,  timer ;  animus,  animSsus ;  civis,  civicus ;  cura,  euro. 

1.  Words  formed  from  the  same  root  sometimes  show  a  variation  in  the 

quantity  of  stem-syllables : 


dico, 

dux,  duels, 

fides, 

hom6, 

lateo, 

leg5, 

macer, 

moveo, 

nota, 

odium. 


dIco, 

dtico, 

fido, 

humanus, 

latema, 

lex,  legis, 

macero, 

mobilis, 

notum, 

odi. 


personO, 

rego, 

secus,     - 

sedeo, 

sero, 

sopor, 

suspicor, 

tego, 

vadum, 

voco, 


pers5na, 

rex,  regis,  regula, 

secius, 

sedes,  sedulus, 

semen, 

sopio, 

susplcio, 

tegula, 

vado, 

vox,  vOcis. 


Note  1  -This  change  of  quantity  in  some  instances  is  the  result  of  contraction,  a8 
movibilis,  moibilis,  mobilis,  and  in  others  it  serves  to  distinguish  words  of  the  same 
orthography,  as  the  verbs  legis,  leges,  regis,  regis,  sedes,  from  the  nonnslegts,  leges, 
regis,  reals,  sedes,  or  the  verbs  dfwis,  duces,fUes,  from  the  nouns  ducts,  duces, Jides. 

Note  2.-A  few  derivatives  shorten  the  long  vowel  of  the  primitive :  deer,  acerbns; 
luceo,  lucerna  ;  moles,  molestus. 

594.  Compounds  generally  retain  the  quantity  of  their  elements : 
ante-fero,  de-fero,  de-duco,  in-aequalis,  pro-duco. 

1.  The  change  of  a  vowel  or  diphthong  does  not  affect  the  quantity : 
de-ligO  {lego),  oc-cido  (cado),  oc-cldo  {caedo). 

2.  The  Inseparable  Prepositions  dl,  se,  and  ve  are  long,  re  short ;  ne  some- 
times  long  and  sometimes  short : 

diduco,  seduco,  vecors,  reduco ;  nedum,  nefas : 

Note  l.—Di  is  short  in  dirimO  and  disertus. 

Note  2.-i\re  is  long  in  nedum,  nemO,  nequam,  nequaquam,  nequlquam,  nequitia, 

andne/ce.    In  other  words  it  is  short.  ^       .     .,.     .         ?       .^ 

Note  8.-/2«  is  sometimes  lengthened  in  a  few  words :  rUigiO,  rUiquiae,  repent, 

rlpulit,  rltulit,  etc. 

3.  In  a  few  words  the  quantity  of  the  second  element  is  changed.    Thus— 
JurO  givQ^ 'jero  ;  notm,'nitus;  nUbO.-nuha:  de-jero,  cog-nitus,  prO-nuba. 

4.  Prae  in  composition  is  usually  short  before  a  vowel :  praeacUus,  prae- 
test  us. 

5.  Fro  is  short  in  the  following  words :  

"i  Here  thTflrst'syllable^is  sh'ort^^afl'er,  biit^mon  in  agrl  (678);  long  In  pos- 
sum, soM,  tolvo  (676,  II.X  but  short  in  potul,  solHtum,  and  'volutum. 


348 


RULES  OF  QUANTITY, 


VERSIFICATION. 


349 


procella^  procul^  prof dnm^  prof drl^  profecto^  profestus^  profciscor,  profUcor^ 
profugio^  profugus^  profundu^^  pronepos^  proneptis^  protervus^  and  in  most 
Greek  words,  as  propheta ;  generally  also  in  prbfundQy  prOpdgd^  prbpdgd^ 
prdpino^  rarely  in  procurd,  propellO. 

6.  At  the  end  of  a  verbal  stem  compounded  with  facid  or  fid,  e  is  gener- 
ally short : 

calefacio,  calcf  iO,  labefacio,  patefacio. 

7.  /  is  usually  long  in  the  first  part  of  the  compounds  of  dies  : 
merldies,  pridie,  postridie,  cotidie,  triduum. 

8.  0  is  long  in  cofitro-y  intro-,  retro-,  and  quando-  in  composition  : 
controversial  introduco,  retroverto,  quandoque  /  but  quariddquidem, 

9.  The  quantity  of  the  final  i  in  iU,  'ubl,  and  utl  is  often  changed  in  com- 
position : 

ibidem,  ibiqiie  ;  iihiqite,  tiblnam,  'uhivls,  'uUciinque^  necuhly  sicuhi  ;  utinam^ 
utique,  sicuti, 

10.  Ilodie,  quasi,  quoqiie,  and  siquidem  have  the  first  syllabic  short. 

695.  The  Quantity  of  Stem- Syllables  in  cases  not  provided  for 
by  any  rules  now  given  will  be  best  learned  from  the  Dictionary. 
By  far  the  larger  number  of  such  syllables  will  be  found  to  be 
short.  For  convenience  of  reference,  a  list  of  the  most  important 
primitives  with  long  stem-syllables  is  added  :  * 


acer 

celo 

deleo 

adtilor 

cera 

dico  (ere) 

6er 

cicada 

dims 

ala 

civis 

dives 

alea 

clamo 

divus 

altare 

clarus 

donee 

amarus 

clavus 

donum 

anclle 

Clemens 

duco 

anhelus 

clivus 

dudum 

antiquus 

codex 

durus 

ara 

comis 

extremus 

area 

como 

fagus 

areo 

Conor 

fama 

ater 

conus 

fanum 

avena 

copia 

farl 

bills 

coram 

fecundus 

bruma 

corona 

ftllx 

bubo 

crater 

feraina 

cacumen 

crates 

fetus 

calig5 

creber 

fido 

camlnua 

credo 

figo 
fiPms 

canus 

crinis 

caper 

crudus 

filum 

carina 

cura 

finis 

earns 

curia 

flavus 

cedo  (ere) 

debeo 

flumen 

fort  una 

fretus 

fumus 

funis 

funus 

furor  (ari) 

gleba 

gloria 

gramen 

gratus 

hamus 

herOs 

heros 

hora 

ico 

imago 

inanis 

Ira 

janua 

jucundus 

luro 

labor  (1) 

lamentum 

lana 

latus  (a,  um) 

lego  (are) 


lenis 

letura 

liber  (era,  crum) 

llbo 

lilium 

limen 

limes 

linura 

liveo 

lorum 

ludo 

lugeo 

lumen 

luna 

mal5 

mane 

manes 

mano 

mater 

maturus 

meta 

mfetior 

miles 

miror 

mitis 

moles 


miigeo 

muni5 

mUnus 

murus 

musa 

mut5 

mutus 

naris 

navis 

nidus 

nltor  (i) 

nodus 

nonus 

nubes 

nubo 

nudus 

nuto 

olim 

omen 

opacus 

opimus 

era 

oro 


otium 

pagus 

pajor 

panis 

pared 

penat6s 

peritus 

pilum 

pinus 

planus 

plenus 

pluma 

poeta 

pomum 

pone 

pond 

poto 

pratum 

pravus 

primus 

privus 

promo 

prOra 


puber 

sedd 

punio 

serenus 

ptlrus 

serus 

qualis 

sidd 

radix. 

sineerus 

radd 

solor 

ramus 

solus 

rams 

edpid 

remus 

spica 

nded 

spina 

ilpa 

spird 

ritus 

spuma 

rivus 

equaled 

rdbur 

etipd 

rddd 

Btrages 

ruga 

strenuus 

rumor 

strlded 

rupes 

sudd 

sanus 

tabes 

scalae 

talis 

scribd 

telum 

scutum 

temd 

sedes 

tibia 

CHAPTER    II. 
VERSIFICATION 


tdtus 

trudd 

uber 

tidus 

timed 

unus 

urd 

utor 

uva 

tividus 

vadd 

van  us 

vates 

veldx 

velum 

vena 

venenum 

venor 

verus 

vilis 

vinum 

vivd 


i- 


■) 


Including  a  few  derivatives  and  compounds. 


SECTION    I. 

GENERAL   VIEW    OF   THE    SUBJECT. 

696.  Latin  Versification  is  based  upon  Quantity.  Syllables 
are  combined  into  certain  metrical  groups  called  Feet,  and  feet, 
singly  or  in  pairs,  are  combined  into  Verses.* 

1.  In  quantity  or  time  the  unit  of  measure  is  the  short  syllable,  indicated 
either  by  a  curve  w  or  by  an  eighth  note  in  music,  ^^ .     A  long  syllable 

1  Modem  versification  is  based  upon  Accent.  An  English  verse  is  a  regular  com- 
bination of  a<icented  and  unaccented  syllables,  but  a  Latin  verse  is  a  similar  combina- 
tion of  long  and  short  syllable».  The  rhythmic  accent  or  ictus  (599)  in  Latin  depends 
entirely  upon  quantity.    Compare  the  following  lines : 

mourn'-fiil 
emp'-ty 

es'  di- 
in'-ge- 

Observe  that  in  the  English  lines  the  accent  or  ictus  falls  upon  the  same  syllables  as  in 
prose,  while  in  the  Latin  it  falls  uniformly  upon  long  syllables.  On  Latin  Versifcation^ 
see  Kamsay's  ' Latin  Prosody';  Schmidt's  *Ehythmik  und  Metrik/  translated  by  Pro- 
fessor White ;  Christ's  '  Metrik.' 


Tell'  me 
Life'  is 

Trii'-di- 
At'  fi- 


not',  in 
but'  an 

tur'  di- 
des'  et 


num'-bers, 
dream'. 


e'. 
ni'. 


\ 


350 


METRICAL  FEET, 


ICTUS,^ARSI8  AND   THESIS,^  VERSES. 


351 


has  in  general  twice  the  value  of  a  short  syllable,'  and  is  indicated"either 
by  the  sign  — ,  or  by  a  quarter  note  in  music,  J  .  This  unit  of  measure  is 
also  called  a  time  or  mora. 

Note  1. — A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  prolonged  so  as  to  have  the  value 
(1)  of  three  short  syllables,  indicated  by  the  sign  i— ,  or  J^  ;  or  (2)  of  four 
short  syllables,  indicated  by  l_i,  or  J. 

Note  2.— A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  shortened  so  as  to  have  the  value 
of  a  short  syllable,  indicated  by  the  sign  > ,  or  ^  .  A  syllable  thus  used 
is  said  to  have  irrational  time. 

697.  The  feet  of  most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  best  Latin 
poets  are — 

I.  Feet  of  Four  Times  or  Foxtr  Morae. 
Dactyl,           one  long  and  two  shorty        —  v^  v^     J  J^^        carmina. 
Spondee,        two  long  syllables^  J  J  leffSs. 


II.  Feet  of  Three  Times  or  Three  Morae. 


JTrochee,*        one  long  and  one  shorty         — 
Iambus,  one  short  and  one  long^         w 

Tribrach,        three  short  syllables^ 

Note  1,— To  these  may  be  added  the  following : 


\^    \^    \m^ 


I  ^ 


Pyrrhic, 

Anapaest, 

Bacchlus, 

Cretic, 

Diiambus, 


V.>»    V-/     — 


pater, 
bonitas. 
doiores. 
mllitcs. 
—    amoenitas. 


Ditrochee, 
Dispondee, 
Greater  Ionic, 
Lesser  Ionic, 
Choriambus, 


V_y    V>    


ISgis. 

parens. 

dominus. 


civitatis. 

praeceptores. 

sententia. 

adolescens. 

impatiens.3 

Tetrapody,  of 
a  half;  a  Pen- 


NoTE  2.--A  Dipody  is  a  group  of  two  feet;  a  Tripody,  of  three;  a 
four,  etc.  A  Trihemimeris  is  a  group  of  three  half  feet,  i.  e.,  a  foot  and 
themimeris,  of  two  and  a  half;  a  Ilephthemimeris^  of  three  and  a  half,  etc, 

598.  Metrical  Equivalents.-— A  long  syllable  may  be  re- 
solved into  two  short  syllables,  as  equivalent  to  it  in  quantity,  or 
two  short  syllables  may  be  contracted  into  a  long  syllable.  The 
forms  thus  produced  are  metrical  equivalents  of  the  original  feet. 

Note,— Thus  the  Dactyl  becomes  a  Spondee  by  contracting  the  two  short  syllables 
into  one  long  syllable;  the  Spondee  becomes  a  Dactyl  by  resolving  the  second  syllable, 
or  an  Anapaest  by  resolving  the  first.  Accordingly,  the  Dactyl,  the  Spondee,  and  the 
Anapaest  are  metrical  equivalents.  In  like  manner  the  Iambus,  the  Trochee,  and  the 
Tribrach  are  metrical  equivalents. 


1  See  foot-note  1,  p.  349. 

2  Sometimes  called  Choree. 

3  The  feet  here  mentioned  as  having  four  syllables  are  only  compounds  of  dissyllabic 
feet.  Thus  the  Diiambus  is  a  double  Iambus ;  the  Ditrochee,  a  double  Trochee ;  the 
Dispondee,  a  double  Spondee;  the  Greater  Ionic,  a  Spondee  and  a  Pyrrhic;  the  Lesser 
Ionic,  a  Pyrrhic  and  a  Spondee ;  the  Choriambus,  a  Trochee  (Choree)  and  an  Iambus. 


M 


I» 


1.  In  certain  kinds  of  verse  admitting  irrational  time  (596,  1,  note  2), 
Spondees,  Dactyls,  and  Anapaests  are  shortened  to  the  time  of  a  Trochee  or 
of  an  lamhus,  and  thus  become  metrical  equivalents  of  each  of  these  feet. 

1)  A  Spondee  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  an  Irrational  Trochee,  and  is 
marked  —  > . 

2)  A  Spondee  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  an  Irrational  Iambus,  and  is 
marked  >  — . 

3)  A  Dactyl  used  for  a  Trochee  is  called  a  Cyclic  Dactyl,  and  is  marked 
— ^  ^-^. 

4)  An  Anapaest  used  for  an  Iambus  is  called  a  Cyclic  Anapaest,  and  is 
marked  ^  v-'— . 

599.  Ictus  or  Rhythmic  Accent. — As  in  the  pronunciation  of 
a  word  one  or  more  syllables  receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called 
accent,  so  in  the  pronunciation  of  a  metrical  foot  one  or  more  syl- 
lables receive  a  special  stress  of  voice  called  Rhythmic  Accent  or 
Ictus. 

1.  Feet  consisting  of  both  long  and  short  syllables  have  the  ictus  uniform- 
ly on  the  long  syllables,  unless  used  as  equivalents  for  other  feet. 

Note.— Thus  the  Dactyl  and  the  Trochee  have  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable;  the 
Anapaest  and  the  Iambus  on  the  last. 

2.  Equivalents  take  the  ictus  of  the  feet  for  which  they  are  used. 

Note  1.— Thus  the  Spondee,  when  used  for  the  Dactyl,  takes  the  ictus  of  the  Dactyl 
— i.  c,  on  the  first  syllable ;  but  when  used  for  the  Anapaest,  it  takes  the  ictus  of  the 
Anapaest— i.  e.,  on  the  last  syllable. 

Note  2.— Feet  consisting  entirely  of  long  or  entirely  of  short  syllables  are  generally 
used  as  equivalents,  and  are  accented  accordingly. 

Note  3.— When  two  short  syllables  Of  an  equivalent  take  the  place  of  an  accented 
long  syllable  of  the  original  foot,  the  ictus  properly  belongs  to  both  of  these  syllables,  but 
is  marked  upon  the  first.    Thus  a  Tribrach  used  for  an  Iambus  is  marked  ^  ^S^  ^. 

600.  Arsis  and  Thesis. — The  accented  part  of  each  foot  is 
called  the  Arsis  (raising),  and  the  unaccented  part,  the  Thesis 
(lowering),^ 

601.  Verses. — A  verse  is  a  line  of  poetry  (596).  It  has  one 
"characteristic  or  fundamental  foot,  which  determines  the  ictus  for 
the  whole  verse. 

Note  1.— Thus  every  dactylic  verse  has  the  ictus  on  the  first  syllable  of  each  foot, 
because  the  Dactyl  has  the  ictus  on  that  syllable. 

1  Greek  writers  on  versification  originally  used  the  terms  apcm  and  6€<rii  of  raising 
and  putting  down  the  foot  in  marching  or  in  beating  time.  Thus  the  Thesis  was  the 
accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  the  Arsis  the  unaccented  part.  The  Romans,  however,  ap- 
plied the  terms  to  raising  and  lowering  the  voice  in  reading.  Thus  Arsis  came  to 
mean  the  accented  part  of  the  foot,  and  Thesis  "the  unaccented  part.  The  terms  have 
now  been  so  long  and  so  generally  used  in  this  sense  that  it  is  not  deemed  advisable  to 
attempt  to  restore  them  to  their  original  signification. 


352 


NAMES  OF   VERSES, 


FIGURES   OF  PROSODY. 


353 


Note  2.— Two  verses  sometimes  unite  and  form  a  compound  verse ;  see  628,  X. 
Note  8.~Metre  means  measure,  and  is  variously  used,  sometimes  designating  the 
measure  or  quantity  of  syllables,  and  sometimes  the/oot  or  measure  »  of  a  verse. 

602.  Caesura  or  Caesural  Pause.— Most  Latin  verses  are 
divided  metrically  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  each  of  which 
forms  a  rhythmic  series.  The  pause,  however  slight,  which  nat- 
urally separates  these  parts  is  called — 

1.  A  Caesura^^  or  a  Caesural  Pause,  when  it  occurs  within  a  foot ; 
see  611. 

2.  A  Diaeresis,  when  it  occurs  at  the  end  of  a  foot ;  see  611,  2 
and  3. 

NoTE.—Some  verses  consist  of  three  parts  thus  separated  by  caesura  or  diaeresis, 
while  some  consist  of  a  single  rhythmic  series.^ 

603.  The  full  metrical  name  of  a  verse  consists  of  three  parts. 
The  first  designates  the  characteristic  foot,  the  second  gives  the 
number  of  feet  or  measures,  and  the  third  shows  whether  the  verse 
is  complete  or  incomplete.     Thus — 

1.  A  Dactylic  Hexameter  Acatalectic  is  a  dactylic  verse  of  six  feet  {Hexa- 
meter), all  of  which  are  complete  {Acatalectic), 

2.  A  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  is  a  trochaic  verse  of  two  measures 
{Dimeter),  the  last  of  which  is  incomplete  {Catalectic), 

Note  1.~A  verse  with  a  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot  is  called  Dactylic;  with  a 
Trochee,  Trochaic;  with  an  Iambus,  Iambic,  etc. 

Note  2.— A  verse  consisting  of  one  measure  is  called  Monomefer;  of  two  Dimeter  • 
of  three,  Trimeter;  of  four,  Tetrameter;  of  five,  Pentameter;  of  six,  Hexameter, 

Note  3.- A  verse  which  closes  with  a  complete  measure  is  called  Acatalectic;  <  with 
an  incomplete  measure,  Catalectic;  *  with  an  excess  of  syllables.  Hypermetrical  ^ 

Note  4.~The  term  Acatalectic  is  often  omitted,  as  a  verso  may  be  assumed  to  be 
complete  unless  the  opposite  is  stated. 

Note  6.-A  Catalectic  verse  is  said  to  be  catalectic  in  syllabam,  in  disyllabum  or 
tn  trisyllahum,  according  as  the  incomplete  foot  has  one,  two,  or  three  syllables 

Note  6.-y  erses  are  sometimes  briefly  designated  by  the  number  of  feet  or  measures 
which  they  contain.  Thus  Hexameter  (six  measures)  sometimes  designates  the  Dactylic 
Hexameter  Acatalectic,  and  Senarim  (six  feet),  the  lamUc  Trimeter  Acatalectic, 

604.  Verses  are  often  designated  by  names  derived  from  cele- 
brated poets. 

Note  l.-Thus  Alcaic  is  derived  from  Alcaeus;  ArchilocUan,  from  Archiloclim; 
Sapphic  jTom  Sappho  ;  Glyconic,  from  Glycon,  etc. 

1  In  dactylic  verses  a  measure  is  a  single  foot,  but  in  trochaic  and  iambic  verses  it 
is  a  dipody  or  a  pair  of  feet. 

2  Caesura  (from  caedo,  to  cut)  means  a  cutting;  it  cuts  or  divides  the  foot  and  the 
verse  into  parts. 

3  A  verse  consisting  of  a  single  series  is  called  Monocolon;  of  two,  Dicolon  •  of 
three,  Tricolon.  ' 

<  From  the  Greek  kKariXr^KTOi^  Kara\yiKTiK6^,  and  vn^pfxerpoi. 


•/ 


A 


V 


Note  2.— Verses  sometimes  receive  a  name  from  the  kind  of  subjects  to  which  they 
were  applied :  as  Heroic,  applied  to  heroic  subjects;  Paroemiac,  to  proverbs,  etc. 

605.  The  Final  Syllable  of  a  verse  may  generally  be  either 
long  or  short  at  the  pleasure  of  the  poet. 

606.  A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  two  or  more  verses  of  dif- 
ferent metres  into  one  metrical  whole  ;  see  631. 

Note.— A  stanza  of  two  lines  or  verses  is  called  a  Distich ;  of  three,  a  Tristich ;  of 
four,  a  Tetrastich. 

607.  Rhythmical  Reading. — In  reading  Latin  verse  care  must 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  words  unbroken,  to  show  the  quantity  of 
the  syllables,  and  to  mark  the  poetical  ictus. 

Note.— Scanning  consists  in  separating  a  poem  or  verse  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is 
composed.* 

608.  FiGUKES  OF  Prosody. — The  ancient  poets  sometimes  al- 
lowed themselves,  in  the  use  of  letters  and  syllables,  certain  liber- 
ties generally  termed  Figures  of  Prosody. 

I.  Elision. — A  final  vowel,  a  final  diphthong,  or  a  final  m  with  the  pre- 
ceding vowel,  is  generally  elided  ^  before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel 
or  with  h  : 

Monstr"^»  horrend"™  informe  ingens,  /or  Monstrum  horrendum  informe 
ingens.    Verg. 

Note  1. — For  Exceptions,  see  Hiatus,  II.,  below. 

Note  2. — Final  e  in  the  interrogative  ne  is  sometimes  dropped  before  a  consonant : 

Pyrrhin'  connubia  servas?/<?r  Pyrrhine  connQbia  servas?  Verff. 

Note  3. — In  the  early  poets  final  s  is  often  dropped  before  consonants : 

Ex  omnibu'  rebu8,/or  ex  omnibus  rebus.  Lucr. 

Note  4. — The  elision  of  a  final  w-  with  the  preceding  vowel  is  sometimes  called 
Ecthlipsis.^ 

Note  5.— The  elision  of  a  final  vowel  or  diphthong,  or  of  a  final  m  with  the  preceding 
vowel,  is  sometimes  called  Synaloepha,^  or,  if  at  the  end  of  a  line,  Synapheia^ 

II.  Hiatus. — A  final  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  retained  before 
a  word  beginning  with  a  voweL     Thus — 

1.  The  interjections  o,  heu,  and  pro  are  not  elided;  see  Verg,,  Aen.,  X., 
18;  Geor.,  II.,  486. 

2.  Long  vowels  and  diphthongs  are  sometimes  retained,  especially  in  the 
arsis  of  a  foot ;  see  Verg.,  Ec.,  III.,  6 ;  VII.,  52. 

1  In  school  this  is  sometimes  done  in  a  purely  mechanical  way,  sacrificing  words  to 
feet ;  but  even  this  mechanical  process  is  often  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  it  makes  him 
familiar  with  the  poetical  ictus. 

2  That  is,  partially  suppressed.  In  reading,  it  should  be  lightly  and  indistinctly 
sounded,  and  blended  with  the  following  syllable,  as  in  English  poetry : 

"  The  eternal  years  of  God  are  hers." 
*  From  the  Greek  c/c0Ai<^i9,  crvfaAot^i;,  and  o-vra^eia. 


354 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 


> 


Note  1.— This  is  most  common  in  proper  names. 

Note  2.— Yergil  employs  this  form  of  hiatus  more  freely  than  the  other  Latin  poets, 
and  yet  the  entire  Aeneid  furnishes  only  a  short  list  of  examples. 

Note  3.— In  the  thesis  a  final  long  vowel  or  diphthong  is  sometimes  shortened  before 
a  short  vowel  instead  of  being  elided ;  see  Verg.,  Aen.,  III.,  211 ;  VI.,  507. 

Note  4.--Hiatus  with  a  short  final  vowel  is  rare,  but  occurs  even  in  Vergil ;  see  Aen., 
I.,  405;  Ec,  II.,  53. 

III.  Synaeresis. — Two  syllables  are  sometimes  contracted  into  one : 
aurea,  delnde,  delnceps,  TIdem,  nsdem,  euedem,  prohibeat  (pronounced 
proiheat). 

Note  1,— In  the  different  parts  of  demm^  ee  is  generally  pronounced  as  one  syllable: 
deeaae^  deestj  deerat,  deerit,  etc. ;  so  ei  in  the  verb  anteed :  antelre,  anteirem,  anteis, 
antett. 

Note  2. — /and  u  before  vowels  are  sometimes  used  as  consonants  with  the  sound  of 
y&ndw.  Thus  abiete  and  ariete  become  abyete  and  aryete;  genua  and  teniK8  be- 
come genwa  and  tenwes. 

Note  B.—In  Plautus  and  Terence,  Synaeresis  is  used  with  great  freedom. 

Note  4. — The  contraction  of  two  syllables  into  one  is  sometimes  called  Synizesis. 

lY.  Diaeresis. — In  poetry,  two  syllables  usually  contracted  into  one 
are  sometimes  retained  distinct : 

aurai/or  aurao,  Orpheus /or  Orpheus,  soluendus/or  solvendus,  silua/^r 

silva. 

'SoTE.^Diaeresia  properly  means  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into  two,  but  the 
Latin  poets  seldom,  if  ever,  actually  make  two  syllables  out  of  one.  The  examples  gen- 
erally explained  by  diaeresis  are  only  ancient  forms,  used  for  eflfect  or  convenience. 

V.  Diastole. — A  syllable  usually  short  is  sometimes  long,  especially 
in  the  arsis  of  a  foot : 

Prlamides/or  Priamides. 

Note  1.— This  poetic  license  occurs  chiefly  in  proper  names  and  in  final  syllables. 
Note  2.— Vergil  uses  this  license  quite  freely.    He  lengthens  que  in  sixteen  instances. 

VI.  Systole. — A  syllable  usually  long  is  sometimes  short : 

tulerunt  for  tulcrunt,  etoterunt  for  stetSrunt  (336,  note),  vide'n  for 
videsno. 

Notb.— -This  poetic  license  occurs  most  frequently  in  final  vowels  and  diphthongs. 

Vn.  Syncope. — An  entire  foot  is  sometimes  occupied  by  a  single  long 
syllable ;  see  614. 

SECTION   II. 

VARIETIES    OF    VERSE. 

I.  Dactylic  Hexameter. 

m 

609.  All  Dactylic  Verses  consist  of  Dactyls  and  their  metrical 
equivalents,  Spondees.  The  ictus  is  on  the  first  syllable  of  every 
foot. 


/ 


V 


I 


\\ 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 

610.  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  *  consists  of  six  feet.  The^first 
four  are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  fifth  a  Dactyl,  and  the 
sixth  a  Spondee  (605).»    The  scale  is,^ 


j  -iL  v-"  v-^-  I   -L.  lssi^4 


Quadrupe-  |  dante  pu-  |  trem  soni-  |  tu  quatit  |  ungula  |  campum.  Vcrg. 
Arma  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no  TrO-  |  jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris.    Verg, 
Infan-  |  dum  re-  |  gina  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.    Verg, 
Illl  ^  in-  I  ter  se-  |  se  mag-  |  na  vl  |  bracchia  |  tollunt.   Verg,^ 

1.  The  scale  of  dactylic  hexameters  admits  sixteen  varieties,  produced  by 
varying  the  relative  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spondees.  Thus 
a  verse  may  contain — 

1)  Five  Dactyls  and  one  Spondee,  as  In  the  first  example  above. 

2)  Four  Dactyls  and  two  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 
8)  Three  Dactyls  and  three  Spondees,  admitting  six  different  arrangements. 

4)  Two  Dactyls  and  four  Spondees,  admitting  four  different  arrangements. 

5)  One  Dactyl  and  five  Spondees,  as  In  the  fourth  example. 

2.  Effect  of  Dactyls. — Dactyls  produce  a  rapid  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  lively  subjects.  Spondees  produce  a  slow  movement,  and  are 
adapted  to  grave  subjects.  But  generally  the  best  effect  is  produced  in  suc- 
cessive lines  by  variety  in  the  number  and  arrangement  of  Dactyls  and  Spon- 
dees. 

3.  Spondaic  Line. — The  Hexameter  sometimes  takes  a  Spondee  in  the 

*  This  Is  at  once  the  most  Important  and  the  most  ancient  of  all  the  Greek  and  Ro- 
man metres.  In  Greece  It  attained  its  perfection  In  the  poems  of  Homer.  It  was  Intro- 
duced Into  Italy  in  a  somewhat  imperfect  form  by  the  poet  Ennlus  about  the  middle  of 
the  second  century  before  Christ;  but  It  was  Improved  by  Lucretius,  Catullus,  and  oth- 
ers, until  it  attained  great  excellence  in  the  works  of  the  Augustan  poets.  The  most 
beautiful  and  finished  Latin  Hexameters  are  found  In  the  works  of  Ovid  and  Vergil. 

2  The  Dactylic  Hexameter  in  Latin  Is  here  treated  as  Acatalectic^  as  the  Latin  poets 
seem  to  have  regarded  the  last  foot  as  a  genuine  Spondee,  thus  making  the  measure 
complete.    See  Christ,  *Metrlk  der  Griechen  und  ROmer,'  pp.  110,  164. 

3  In  this  scale  the  sign '  marks  the  ictus  (599),  and  —  o^  denotes  that  the  original 

Dactyl,  marked  —  ^-^  ^-^,  may  become  by  contraction  a  Spondee,  marked ,  i.  e.,  that  a 

Spondee  may  be  used  for  a  Dactyl  (698). 

*  Expressed  in  musical  characters,  this  scale  is  as  follows ; 


in 


1 


a  jj 


The  notation  ^  ^^  means  that,  instead  of  the  original  measure  J  sit  the  equiv- 
alent J  J  may  be  used. 

6  The  final  I  of  illl  is  elided;  see  608,  L 

«  With  these  lines  of  Vergil  compare  the  following  Hexameters  from  the  Evangeline 
of  Longfellow : 

*'Thls  is  the  forest  primeval ;  but  where  are  the  hearts  that  beneath  it 
leaped  like  the  roe,  when  he  hears  in  the  woodland  the  voice  of  the  huntsman  ?  ^ 


356 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER, 


DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER. 


X 


fifth  place.    It  is  then  called  Spondaic,  and  generally  has  a  Dactyl  as  its 
fourth  foot ; 

Cara  de-  |  um  sobo-  |  les  mag-  |  num  Jovis  |  incrO-  |  mentum.    Verg, 

Note.— In  Vergil,  spondaic  lines  are  used  much  more  sparingly  than  in  the  earlier 
poets,^  and  generally  end  in  words  of  three  or  four  syllables,  as  in  incrementum  above.^ 

611.  Caesura,  or  Caesural  Pause. — The  favorite  caesural 
pause  of  the  Hexameter  is  after  the  arsis,  or  in  the  thesis,  of  the 
third  foot  :  ^ 

Arma-  I  ti  ten-  |  dunt ;  ||  it  |  clamor  et  |  agmine  |  facto.  Vcrr/, 
Infan-  |  dum,  re-  |  gina,  ||  ju-  |  bes  reno-  |  vare  do-  |  lorem.  Ver^, 

Note.— In  the  first  line,  the  caesural  pause,  marked  || ,  is  after  tendunf,  after  the 
arsis  of  the  third  foot;  and  in  the  second  line  after  regJna,  in  the  thesis  (iia  ju)  of  the 
third  foot.  The  former  is  called  the  Masculine  Caesura,  the  latter  the  Feminine  Cae- 
sura. * 

1.  The  Caesural  Pause  is  sometimes  in  the  fourth  foot,  and  then  an  ad- 
ditional pause  is  often  introduced  in  the  second : 

Credide-  |  rim ;  II  ver  |  illud  e-  |  rat,  II  ver  |  magnus  a-  |  gebat.  Verg, 

2.  BucoLio  Diaeresis.— A  pause  called  the  Bucolic  Biaeresis^^  because 
originally  used  in  the  pastoral  poetry  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes  occurs  at  the 
end  of  the  fourth  foot : 

Ingen-  |  tern  cae-  |  lo  soni-  |  turn  dedit ;  II  inde  se-  |  cutus.  Verg. 

Note.— The  Bucolic  Diaeresis  was  avoided  by  the  best  Latin  poets,  even  in  treating 
pastoral  subjects.    Vergil,  even  in  his  Bucolics,  uses  it  very  sparingly. 

3.  A  Diaeresis  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot  without  any  proper  caemral 
pause  is  regarded  as  a  blemish  in  the  verse : 

Pulveru-  I  lentus  e-  |  quis  furit ;  ji  omnes  |  arma  re-  |  quirunt.  Verg. 


^  A  single  poem  of  Catullus,  about  half  as  long  as  a  book  of  the  Aeneid,  contains  more 
spondaic  lines  than  all  the  works  of  Vergil. 

3  But  Vergil  has  two  spondaic  lines  ending  et  magnis  dU;  see  Aen.,  III.,  12  and 
VIII.,  679. 

3  That  is,  the  first  rhythmic  series  ends  at  this  point.  This  i)ause  is  always  at  the 
end  of  a  word,  and  may  be  so  very  slight  as  in  most  cases  not  to  interfere  with  the  sense, 
even  if  no  mark  of  punctuation  is  required;  but  the  best  verses  are  so  constructed  that 
the  caesural  pause  coincides  with  a  pause  in  the  sense ;  see  Christ, '  Metrik,*  p.  184.  Ac- 
cording to  some  writers,  the  Dactylic  Ilexametcr  had  its  origin  in  the  union  of  two  ear- 
lier dactylic  verses,  and  the  caesural  pause  now  marks  the  point  of  union ;  see  Christ 
p.  1T3.  '  ' 

*  The  Masculine  Caesura  is  also  called  the  Strong,  or  the  Syllabic,  Caesura,  the  Fem- 
inine the  Weak^  or  the  Trochaic,  Caesura.  Caesuras  are  often  named  from  the  place 
which  they  occupy  in  the  line.  Thus  a  caesura  after  the  arsis  of  the  second  foot  is  called 
THhemimeral;  after  the  arsis  of  the  third,  Penthemimeral ;  after  the  arsis  of  the 
fourth,  Hephthemimeral. 

«  Also  called  the  Bucolic  Caesura^  as  the  term  caesura  is  often  made  to  include 
diaeresis. 


357 


4.  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  always  produces  a  cae&ura,  A  line 
may  therefore  have  several  caesuras,  but  generally  only  one  of  these  is  marked 
by  any  perceptible  pause : 

Arma  vi-  |  rumque  ca-  |  no,  II  Tro-  |  jae  qui  |  primus  ab  |  oris.  Verg, 

Note. — Here  there  is  a  caesura  in  every  foot  except  the  last,  but  only  one  of  these, 
that  after  cano,  in  the  third  foot,  has  the  caesural  pause.  ^ 

5.  The  caesura,  with  or  without  the  pause,  is  an  important  feature  in  every 
hexameter.    A  line  without  it  is  prosaic  in  the  extreme ; 

Komae  |  moenia  |  terruit  |  impiger  |  Hannibal  |  armls.  Enn, 

Note  1. — The  Penthemimeral  ^  caesura  has  great  power  to  impart  melody  to  the 
verse,  but  the  best  effect  is  produced  when  it  is  aided  by  other  caesuras,  as  above. 
KoTK  2.— A  happy  effect  is  often  produced — 

1)  By  combining  i\iQ  feminine  caesura  in  the  third  foot  with  the  hephthemimeral 
and  the  trihemimeral : 

Donee  e-  |  ris  le-  |  lix,  ||  mul-  |  tos  nume-  I  rabis  a-  |  micGs.  Verg, 

2)  By  combining  the  hephthemimeral  with  the  trihemimeral: 

Inde  to- 1  ro  pater  |  Aene-  |  as  sic  |  orsus  ab  |  alto.  Verg. 

Note  8. — The  union  of  the  feminine  caesura  with  the  trihemimeral,  common  in 
Greek,  is  somewhat  rare  in  Latin,  but  it  sometimes  produces  an  harmonious  verse ; 
Praecipi-  |  tat,  sua-  |  dentque  ca- 1  dentia  |  sidera  j  somnos.  Verg. 

Note  4.— In  the  last  two  feet  of  the  verse  there  should  in  general  be  no  caesura  what- 
ever, unless  it  falls  in  the  thesis  of  the  fifth  foot ;  but  when  that  foot  contains  two  entu-o 
words,  a  caesura  is  admissible  after  the  arsis. 

612.  The  ictus  often  falls  upon  unaccented  syllables.     Thus — 

1.  In  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  feet  of  the  verse  it  falls  some- 
times upon  accented  and  sometimes  upon  unaccented  syllables  ;  see 
examples  under  610. 

2.  In  the  third  foot  it  generally  falls  upon  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble ;  see  examples  under  610. 

3.  In  the  fifth  and  sixth  feet  it  generally  falls  upon  accented  syl- 
lables ;  sf  e  examples  under  610. 

613.  The  Last  Word  of  the  Hexameter  is  generally  either 
a  dissyllable  or  a  trisyllable  ;  see  examples  under  610  and  611.* 

1  The  caesura  with  the  pause  is  variously  called  the  chief  caesura,  the  caesura  of 
the  nerse,  the  caesura  of  the  rhythm,  etc.  In  distinction  from  this  any  other  caesura 
may  be  called  a  caesura,  a  caesura  of  the  foot,  or  a  minor  caesura. 

2  See  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

2  The  learner  should  be  informed  that  the  niceties  of  structure  which  belong  to  fin- 
ished Latin  hexameters  must  be  sought  only  in  the  poems  of  Yergil  and  Ovid.  The  hap- 
piest disposition  of  caesuras,  the  best  adjustment  of  the  poeticaf  ictus  to  the  prose  accent, 
and  the  most  approved  structure  in  the  closing  measures  of  the  verse,  can  not  be  expected 
in  the  rude  numbers  of  Ennius,  in  the  scientific  discussions  of  Lucretius,  or  even  in  the 
familiar  Satires  of  Horace.  Those  interested  in  the  peculiarities  of  Latin  hexameters  in 
different  writers  will  find  a  discussion  of  the  subject  in  Lucian  MQller's  work, '  Do  ro 
metric»  poetarum  Latin orura  praetor  Plautum  et  Terontium  libri  septem.' 


358 


DACTYLIC    VERSE. 


Note  1. — Spondaic  lines  are  exceptions;  see  610,  3,  note. 

Note  2.— Two  monosyllables  at  the  end  of  a  line  are  not  particularly  objectionable, 
and  sometimes  even  produce  a  happy  effect: 

Praecipi- 1  tant  cu-  |  rae,  ||  tur-  |  biitaque  |  fdnere  |  mens  est.  Verg. 

Note  3. — Est^  even  when  not  preceded  by  another  i^onosyllable,  may  stand  at  the 
end  of  a  line. 

Note  4.— A  single  monosyllable,  except  eat^  is  not  often  used  at  the  end  of  the  line, 
except  for  the  purpose  of  emphasis  or  humor : 

Parturi-  |  unt  mon-  |  tes,  ||  nas- 1  cetur  I  ridicu-  |  lus  mus.  ITor, 

Note  6.— In  Yergil,  twenty-one  lines,  apparently  hypermetrical  (603,  note  3),  are 
supposed  to  elide  a  final  vowel  or  a  final  em  or  um  before  the  initial  vowel  of  the  next 
line;  see  Aen.,  L,  382 ;  Geor.,  I.,  295.    See  also  608, 1.,  note  5. 

n.  Other  Dactylic  Verses. 

614.  Dactylic  Pentameter.* — The  Dactylic  Pentameter  con- 
sists of  two  parts  separated  by  a  diaeresis.  Each  part  consists  of 
two  Dactyls  and  a  long  syllable.  The  Spondee  may  take  the  place 
of  the  Dactyl  in  the  first  part,  but  not  in  the  second  : 


1-^ 


-^  A  II 
I  i-jII^ 


v_/  v_/ 


1 


\-y  K^ 


^-  I  ^  A  ,  or 


Admoni-  |  tu  coe-  |  pi  II  fortior  |  esse  tu-  |  0.   Ovid. 

615,  Elegiac  Distich. — The  Elegiac  Distich  consists  of  the 

Hexameter  followed  by  the  Pentameter : 

Semise  |  pulta  vi-  |  rum  1 1  cur-  |  vis  feri-  |  untur  a-  |  rStrls 
Ossa,  ru-  |  in5-  |  sas  1 1  occulit  |  herba  do-  |  mus.   Ovid. 

Note  1. — In  reading  the  Elegiac  Distich,  the  Pentameter,  including  pauses,  should 
of  course  occupy  the  same  time  as  the  Hexameter. 

Note  2.— Elegaic  composition  should  be  characterized  by  grace  and  elegance.  Both 
members  of  the  distich  should  be  constructed  in  accordance  with  the  most  rigid  rules  of 
metre.  The  sense  should  be  complete  at  the  end  of  the  couplet  Ovid  furnishes  us  the 
best  specimens  of  this  style  of  composition. 

616.  The  Dactylic  Tetrameter  is  identical  with  the  last  four 
feet  of  the  Hexameter  : 

Ibimus  I  6  soci-  |  I,  comi-  |  tesque.  ITor. 

1  The  name  Pentameter  Is  founded  on  the  ancient  division  of  the  line  into  five  feet ; 
the  first  and  second  being  Dactyls  or  Spondees,  the  third  a  Spondee,  the  fourth  and  fifth 
Anapaests. 

3  In  musical  characters: 


jp\jp\JrUJ2\JJ2   Jr, 


or 


Thus,  in  reading  Pentameters,  a  pause  may  be  introduced  after  the  long  syllable  in  the 
tliird  foot,  or  that  foot  may  be  lengthened  so  as  to  fill  the  measure. 


TROCHAIC    VERSE. 


359 


Note. — In  compound  verses,  as  In  the  Greater  Archilochian^  the  tetrameter  in 
composition  with  other  metres  has  a  Dactyl  in  the  fourth  place;  see  638,  X. 

617.  The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  identical  with 
the  second  half  of  the  Dactylic  Pentameter : 

Arbori-  I  busque  co-  |  mae.  Hor. 
Note.— The  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic  is  also  known  as  the  Lesser  Archilochian. 

III.  Trochaic  Verse. 

618.  The  Trochaic  Dipody,  the  measm*e  in  Trochaic  verse,* 
consists  of  two  Trochees,  the  second  of  which  is  sometimes  irra- 
tional (598,  1,  1)  )-— i.  e.,  it  has  the  form  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time 
of  a  Trochee :  .  ^  J  >  J    h 


-^w-^^ 


or 


NoTK  1.— By  the  ordinary  law  of  equivalents  (598),  a  Tribrach  ^  ^  ^  may  take  the 
place  of  the  Trochee  -^  w,  and  an  apparent  Anapaest  ^  ^  >  the  place  of  the  Irrational 
Trochee  -^  > .«    In  proper  names  a  cyclic  Dactyl  -^^  ^  (598, 1, 8) )  may  occur  in  either 

foot. 

Note  2.— In  the  Trochaic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

Note  3.— A  syllable  is  sometimes  prefixed  to  a  Trochaic  verse.  A  syllalJle  thus  used 
is  called  Anacrusis  (upward  beat),  and  is  separated  from  the  followmg  measure  by  the 
mark  •  . 

619.  The  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalectic  consists  of  two  Tro- 
chaic Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  In  Horace  it  admits 
no  equivalents,  and  has  the  following  scale  : 

Aula  divi-  |  tern  manet.  Hor. 
Note.— -A  Trochaic  Tripody  occurs  in  the  Greater  Archilochian ;  see  6^8,  X. 
1.  The  Alcaic  Enneasy liable  verse  which  forms  the  third  line  in  the  Al- 
caic stanza  is  a  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis : 


> 


-.bKW- 


Pu-  \  er  quis  ex  au-  |  la  capillis.  Eor. 

620.  The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Catalectic  consists  of  four 
Trochaic  Dipodies  with  the  last  foot  incomplete.  There  is  a  diae- 
resis  (602,  2)  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  the  incomplete  dipody 
admits  no  equivalents : 


> 


—  ^  II  -^  w  —  b 


-^  w  ^  A  .' 


Primus  ad  ci-  |  bum  vocatur, !  |  prlmo  pulmen-  |  tum  datur.  Plant. 


1  See  601,  note  8,  with  foot-note. 

a  Thus  in  the  second  foot  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  the  poet  may  use  a  Trochee,  a  Tribrach, 
a  Spondee,  or  an  Anapaest ;  but  the  Spondee  and  the  Anapaest  are  pronounced  in  the 
same  time  as  the  Trochee  or  the  Tribrach— i.  e.,  they  have  irrational  time. 

8  Only  the  leading  ictus  of  each  dipody  is  here  marked. 


360 


IAMBIC   VERSE. 


IONIC   VERSE. 


361 


15'oTE  1.— This  is  simply  the  union  of  two  Trochaic  Dimeters,  the  first  acataleciic 
and  the  second  catalectic^  separated  by  diaeresis  J 

Note  2.— In  Latin  this  verse  is  used  chiefly  in  comedy,  and  accordingly  admits  great 
licence  in  the  use  of  feet.  The  Irrational  Trochee  (598, 1, 1)  )  and  its  equivalents  may 
occur  in  any  foot  except  in  the  last  dipody. 

Note  8.— The  Trochaic  Tetrameter  Acataleciic  also  occurs  in  the  earlier  poets : 

Ipse  summis  J  saxis  fixus  ||  asperis  u-  J  visceratus.  Bnn. 

IV.  Iambic  Verse. 

621.  The  Iambic  Dipody,  the  measure  of  Iambic  verse,  consists 
of  two  Iambi,  the  first  of  which  is  sometimes  irrational  (598,  1,2)) 
— i.  e.,  it  has  the  form  of  a  Spondee  with  the  time  of  an  Iambus  : 

b-^w-^    or    J"  J  J"  J 

Note  1.— The  Tribrach  for  the  Iambus,  and  the  Dactyl '  or  Anapaest  ^  for  the  Irra- 
tional Iambus,  are  rare,  except  in  comedy. 

Note  2.— In  the  Ionic  Dipody,  the  first  foot  has  a  heavier  ictus  than  the  second. 

622.  The  Iambic  Trimetek,  also  called  Senarius,  consists  of 
three  Iambic  Dipodies.  The  Caesura  is  usually  in  the  third  foot, 
but  may  be  in  the  fourth  : 

>  -^         I  >  -^ 


Quid  obsera-  |  tis  1 1  auribus  |  fundis  prcccs  ?  Hor. 
Neptunus  al-  |  to  1 1  tundit  hi-  |  bernus  salo.  Bor. 
Has  inter  epu-  |  las  ll  ut  juvat  |  pastas  oves.  Bbr.* 

1.  In  Proper  Names,  a  Cyclic  Anapaest  is  admissible  in  any  foot  except 
the  last,  but  must  be  in  a  single  word. 

2.  In  Horace  the  only  feet  freely  admitted  are  the  Iambus  and  the  Spon- 
dee ;  their  equivalents,  the  Tribrach,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Anapaest,  are  used 
very  sparingly.  The  Tribrach  never  occurs  in  the  fifth  foot  and  only  once 
in  the  first.     The  Anapaest  occurs  only  twice  in  all. 

3.  In  Comedy  great  liberty  is  taken,  and  the  Spondee  and  its  equivalents 
are  freely  admitted  in  any  foot  except  the  last. 


>  Compare  the  corresponding  English  measure,  in  which  the  two  parts  appear  as 
separate  lines :  ,,  j^^^^^,  ^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  j  ^j^,  ^^^.^^  ^^ 

We'  can  make  our  |  lives'  sublime, 
And',  departing,  |  leave'  behind  us 
Foot'prints  on  the  |  sands'  of  time.'" 

2  The  Dactyl  thus  used  has  the  time  of  an  Iambus  and  is  marked  >  vi/  w;  the  Ana- 
paest is  cyclic  (598, 1,  4),  marked  ^  v.^. 

3  This  same  scale,  divided  thus,  ^  |  -^v^  —  ^|-^v_.--^|^v^—  a,  repre- 
sents Trochaic  Trimeter  Catalectic  with  Anacrusis.  Thus  all  Iambic  verses  may  be 
treated  as  Trochaic  verses  with  Anacrusis. 

*  Compare  the  English  Alexandrine,  the  last  line  of  the  Spenserian  stanza : 

When  Phoe'bus  lifts  I  his  head'  out  of  |  the  win'ter's  wave. 


I:, 


4.  The  Choliambus  is  a  variety  of  Iambic  Trimeter  with  a  Trochee  in  the 
sixth  foot :  * 

Miser  Catul-  |  le  dSsinas  |  ineptlre.   Catul. 

623.  The  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  occurs  in  Horace  with 
the  following  scale : 

^ -^  v^  -  I  b -^  w  —  I  w -i^  o 
Vocatus  at-  |  que  non  voca-  |  tus  audit.  Hor. 

Note.— The  Dactyl  and  the  Anapaest  are  not  admissible;  the  Tribrach  occurs  only  in 
the  second  foot. 

624.  The  Iambic  Dimeter  consists  of  twolambic  Dijoodies : 

Quenmtur  in  |  silvis  aves.  Hor, 
Imbres  nives-  |  que  comparat.  Hor. 
Ast  ego  vicis-  I  sim  risero.  Hor, 


Note  1.— Horace  admits  the  Dactyl  only  in  the  first  foot,  the  Tribrach  only  in  the 
second,  the  Anapaest  not  at  all. 

Note  2.— Iambic  Dimeter  is  sometimes  catalectic. 

625.  The  Iambic  Tetrameter  consists  of  four  Iambic  Dipo- 
dies.    It  belongs  chiefly  to  comedy  : 

Quantum  intellex-  |  I  modo  senis  1 1  sententiam  |  de  nuptils.  Ter. 

Note.— Iambic  Tetrameter  is  sometimes  catalectic : 

Quot  commodas  I  res  attuli?  ||  quot  autem  ade  J  ml  curas.  Ter, 

V.  Ionic  Verse. 

626.  The  Ionic  Verse  in  Horace   consists  entirely  of  Lesser 
Ionics.     It  may  be  either  Trimeter  or  Dimeter  : 


v^v./-^  —   |v_/v^-^—  I 


x-y  v-^ 


Neque  pugnO  |  neque  segnl  |  pede  victus ; 
Catus  idem  |  per  apertum.  Hor. 

Note  1.— In  this  verse  the  last  syllable  is  not  common,  but  is  often  long  only  hy 
position  (p.  888,  foot-note  3).    Thus  us  in  victus  is  long  before  c  in  catus. 

Note  2.— The  Ionic  Tetrameter  Catalectic,  also  called  Sotadean  Verse,  occurs 
chiefly  in  comedy.  It  consists  in  general  of  Greater  Ionics,  but  in  Martial  it  has  a  Ditro- 
chee  as  the  third  foot : 

Has  cum  gemi-  |  na  compede  |  dedicat  ca-  |  tenfis.  Mart. 


^  Choliambus,  or  Season,  means  lame  or  limping  Iambus,  and  is  so  called  from 
its  limping  movement.  It  is  explained  as  a  Trochaic  Trimeter  A  catalectic  with  Anacru- 
sis, and  with  syncope  (008,  VII.)  in  the  fifth  foot.  The  example  here  given  may  be  rep- 
resented thus  :  ^   \   -^w  —  v-yl-^w-s^l  Li.—  o, 

16 


362 


LOGAOEDIC  VERSE, 


VI.    LoGAOEDic    Verse. 

627.  Logaoedic  ^  Verse  is  a  special  variety  of  Trochaic  Verse. 
The  Irrational  Trochee  j.  >,  the  Cyclic  Dactyl  -^^  w,  and  the  Syn- 
copated Trochee  i-  (008,  VII.)  are  freely  admitted.  It  has  an  ap- 
parently light  ictus.  ^ 

Note.— Logaoedic  verses  show  great  variety  of  form,  but  a  few  general  types  will  iu- 
dicate  the  character  of  the  whole. 

628.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  appear  in  Horace  : 

I.  The  Adonic  : 

Montis  i-  |  magO.  Eor, 

II.  The  First  Pherecratic  '  or  the  Aristophanic  : 

.ZL^ ^  I -^ ^ I  ^ o  or  j;;5 j^lj j^lj / 

Cur  nequc  |  mlli-  |  taris.  Hor. 

Note.— Pherecratic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tripody. 
It  is  called  the  First  or  Second  Pherecratic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first  or 
the  second  place  in  the  verse.    In  each  form  it  may  be  acatalectic  or  catalectic : 

1)  -^^^  ^  I  -^  w  I  —  ^  or  catalectic:  -^-w  w  |  -^  w  |  ^  A 

2)  X  >  I  JLv^  v^  I  -^  o  or  catalectic:  -^>  |  -^-w  ^  |  ^  A 

In  Logaoedic  verse  the  term  basis  or  lose,  marked  x ,  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  foot  or 
feet  which  precede  the  Cyclic  Dactyl.  Thus,  in  the  Second  Pherecratic,  the  first  foot  _> 
is  the  base. 

III.  The  Second  Glyconic  ^  Catalectic  : 

^  >  I  -^  w  I  ^  V.  I  ^  A   or  J  ,^!  J:^  J^IJ  .^1  J  1 
Donee  |  gratus  e-  |  ram  ti-  |  bl.  Hor, 

Note  1.— Glyconic  is  the  technical  term  applied  to  the  regular  Logaoedic  Tetrapody. 
It  is  called  the  First,  Second,  or  Third  Glyconic  according  as  its  Dactyl  occupies  the  first, 
second,  or  third  place  in  the  verse.    In  each  form  it  may  be  either  acatalectic  or  catalectic. 

Note  2.— The  Second  Glyconic  sometimes  has  a  Syncope  (608,  VII.)  in  the  third  foot. 

IV.  The  Lesser  Asclepiadean  '  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Phe- 
recraticSj  a  Second  and  a  First : 

Maece-  |  nas  ata  |  vis  i  1  edite  |  regi-  |  bus.  Ilor. 

1  From  Aoyo?,  prose,  and  aotSr},  song,  applied  to  verses  which  resemble  prose. 

2  The  free  use  of  long  syllables  in  the  thesis  causes  the  poetical  ictus  on  the  arsis  to 

appear  less  prominent 

8  Pherecratic,  Glyconic,  and  Asclepiadean  verses  may  be  explained  as  Choriambic  : 

Pherecratic,  -^v^w—  |v^-^|^A 

First  Glyconic,  -^  ^^  ^  -^  I  •  ^  -^ 


^ 


Asclepiadean,  -^  >  | 


! 


LOGAOEDIC  VERSE. 


363 


V.  The   Greater  Asclepiadean  consists  of  three  catalectic 
verses,  a  Second  Pherecratic,  an  Adonic,  and  a  First  Pherecratic  : 

Seu  plu-  I  res  hie-  |  mes,  |I  seu  tribu-  i  it  II  Juppiter  |  ulti-  |  mam.  Ilor, 

VI.  The  Lesser  Sapphic  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  and  a 
First  Pherecratic  : 

-^^  i-  >  I  -^w  |-^w|  ^^ 
Namque  |  me  sil-  |  va  lupus  |  in  Sa-  |  bina.  Ilor, 

VII.  The  Greater  Sapphic  consists  of  two  Catalectic  Olycoriics, 
a  Third  and  a  First  with  Syncope  : 


Inter  |  aequa-  |  lesequi-  |  tat,  II  Gallica  j  nee  lu-  j  pa-  j  tis.  Hor, 

VIII.  The  Lesser  Alcaic  consists  of  two  Cyclic  Dactyls  and 
two  Trochees: 

Purpure-  |  o  vari-  j  us  co-  |  lore.  Hor. 

IX.  The  Greater  Alcaic  consists  of  a  Trochaic  Dipody  with 
Anacrusis  and  a  Catalectic  First  Pherecratic: 

Vi-  :  des  ut  |  alta  j  stet  nive  |  candi-  |  dum.  Hor, 

X.  The  Greater  Archilochian  ^  consists  of  a  Dactylic  Tetra- 
meter (616)  followed  by  a  Trochaic  Tripody.  The  first  three  feet 
are  either  Dactyls  or  Spondees  ;  the  fourth,  a  Dactyl ;  and  the  last 
three,  Trochees : 


v^  ^^ 


-^  v^   I    -i. 


Vitae  I  summa  bre-  |  vis  spem  |  nos  vetat,  1 1  incho-  |  are  |  longam.  Hor, 

Note.— This  verse  may  be  explained  either  as  Logaoedic  or  as  Compound.  With  the 
first  explanation,  the  Dactyls  are  cyclic  and  the  Spondees  have  irrational  time;  with  the 
second  explanation,  the  first  member  of  the  verse  has  the  Dactyl  as  its  characteristic  foot 
and  the  second  member  the  Trochee ;  see  601,  note  2. 

629.  The  following  Logaoedic  verses  not  used  in  Horace  de- 
serve mention : 

I.  The  Phalaecian  is  a  Logaoedic  Pentapody:  ^ 


Non  est  I  vivere,  |  sed  va-  |  lere  |  vita.  Mart, 


*  For  the  Lesser  Archilochian,  see  617,  note. 

«  This  verse  differs  from  the  Lesser  Sapphic  in  having  the  Dactyl  in  the  second  foot, 
while  the  latter  has  the  Dactyl  in  the  third. 


364 


L  YRIC  METRES  OF  HORA  CE. 


II.  The   Second  Priapean  consists  of  two   Catalectic  Second 
Glyconics  with  Syncope : 

Quercus  |  arida  |  rusti-  |  ca  1 1  confer-  |  mata  se  |  ca-  |  rl.  Catul, 


>   :  — 


i-^ 


SECTION    III. 

THE  VERSIFICATION  OF  THE   PRINCIPAL  LATIN   POETS. 

630.  Vergil  and  Juvenal  use  the  Dactylic  Hexameter;  Ovid, 
the  Hexameter  in  his  Metamorphoses  and  the  Elegiac  Distich  in  his 
Epistles  and  oth^r^orks ;  Horace,  the  Hexameter  in  his  Epistles 
and  Satires,  and  a  variety  of  metres  in  his  Odes  and  Epodes. 

Lyric  Metres  of  Horace. 

631.  For  convenience  of  reference,  an  outline  of  the  lyric 
metres  of  Horace  is  here  inserted. 

Stanzas  of  Four  Verses  or  Lines, 

I.  Alcaic  Stanza. — First  and  second  lines,  Greater  Alcaics  (628,  IX.) ; 
third.  Trochaic  Dimeter  with  Anacrusis  (619,  1);  fourth.  Lesser  Alcaic 
(628,  VIII.) :       J   J 

2.) 

8. 

4. 

in  thirty-seven  Odes :  I.,  9, 16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  II.,  1,  3,  6, 
7,  9,  11,  13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20;  TIL,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29;  IV., 
4,  9,  14,  15. 

II.  Sapphic  Stanza. — The  first  three  lines.  Lesser  Sapphics  (628,  VI.) ; 
the  fourth,  Adonic  (628,  L)  : 

2.  [-v^|-.>|  — ^v^l-wl-w 

3.  ) 

4. ^  v^  I  -  ^ 

In  twenty-six  Odes:  L,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  26,  30,  82,  38;  IL,  2,  4,  6,  8, 
10,  16;  IIL,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27;  IV.,  2,  6,  11 ;    and  Secular  Hymn. 

III.  Greater  Sapphic  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines.  First  Glyconics 
Catalectic  with  Syncope  in  the  third  foot  (608,  VII.) ;  second  and  fourth 
lines.  Greater  Sapphics : 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 


365 


2 
4 


':[-'->' 


I- 


A 


In  Ode  L,  8. 

IV.  First  Asclepiadean  Glyconic  Stanza.— The  first  three  lines. 
Lesser  Asclepiadeans  (628,  IV.) ;  the  fourth,  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic 
(628,111.):      J 

2.[   ->  I^..Il-11-.^^I-^I^a 

8.) 

4.      ->  |-^^|_^|-/^ 

In  nine  Odes:  L,  6,  15,  24,  33;  IL,  12;  IIL,  10,  16;  IV.,  5,  12. 

V.  Second  Asclepiadean  Glyconic  Stanza. — The  first  two  lines.  Lesser 
Asclepiadeans  (628,  IV.);  the  third.  Second  Glyconic  Catalectic  with  Syn- 
cope in  the  third  foot  (628,  IIL,  note  2) ;  the  fourth.  Second  Glyconic 
Catalectic  (628,  IIL) : 


i}->i 


I 


|--|^ A 


8.      ->|-v^v^|l_|^A 
4.      ->  l-^^l-^I^A 
In  seven  Odes:  L,  5,  14,  21,  23  ;  IIL,  7,  13 ;  IV.,  13. 

VL  Glyconic  Asclepiadean  Stanza.— First  and  third  lines,  Second 
Glyconics  Catalectic  (628,  III.) ;  second  and  fourth,  Lesser  Asclepiadeans 
(628,  IV.):      .   J 

^•}   ->|-^^|l.II-^s..|-..|^A 
In  twelve  Odes:  L,  3,  13,  19,  36;  IIL,  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28;  IV.,  1,  3. 

VII.  Lesser  Asclepiadean  Stanza. — Four  Lesser  Asclepiadeans : 
1. 


2. 
3. 
4. 


Y  -> 


-..    i-i 


A 


In  three  Odes  :  I.,  1 ;  IIL,  30 ;  IV.,  8. 

VIII.  Greater  Asclepiadean  Stanza. — Four  Greater  Asclepiadeans 
(028,  V.) :        . 

1. 


2. 
8. 
4. 


^  ~> 


II 


--  1^  A 


In  three  Odes:  L,  11,  18;  IV.,  10. 


366 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE. 


IX.  Double  Alcmanian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic  Hexa- 
meters (610);  second  and  fourth,  Dactylic  Tetrameters  (616): 


3.) 


2. 

4. 


I-^I 


br^ 


<^   \^ 


_Va/ 


In  two  Odes :  L,  7,  28. 

Note. — This  stanza  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  Alcmanian  stanzas ;  see  XIX.  below. 

X.  Trochaic  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  Trochaic  Dimeter  Catalec- 
tic  (619);  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623) : 


•    L      y^  —  v»^ 

3.  )  ' 

■}-  — 


2 
4 


^ .  .^ 


> 


I-- 


InOdell.,  18. 

XL  Dactylic  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines,  Dactylic 
Hexameters ;  second  and  fourth,  Catalectic  Dactylic  Trimeters  (617,  note) : 


>-/    \m/ 


_    ^ 


2 

4 


V^    V^ 


V-/    V-/ 


In  Ode  IV.,  7. 

XII.  Greater  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  and  third  lines.  Greater  Ar- 
chilochians  (628,  X.) ;  second  and  fourth,  Iambic  Trimeter  Catalectic  (623) : 


3.  ) 


2 

4 


:h— I 


\^  y^ 


—   V-/   —    I    V-/  —  '^ 


ll-^l-v^l- 


In  Ode  I.,  4. 

Note.— The  second  and  fourth  lines  are  sometimes  read  with  syncope,  as  follows ; 


> 


XIII.  Ionic  Stanza. — First  and  second  lincs^  Ionic  Dimeters  (626) ; 
third  and  fourth,  Ionic  Trimeters  (626) : 


} 


2 
3 
4 


V-/  v.^ 


I 


In  Ode  III.,  12. 

Note.— This  ode  is  variously  arranged  in  different  editions,  sometimes  In  stanzas  of 


three  lines  and  sometimes  of  four. 


LYRIC  METRES  OF  HORACE, 


367 


Stanzas  of  Three  Lines. 

XIV.  First  Archilochian   Stanza. — First  line.  Hexameter;  second, 
Iambic  Dimeter;  third.  Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic: 


O      >  I    > 


^^'V-/ 


\^   V-/ 


_   ^ 


I 


v^  v^ 


I  -  A 


d.    —  V--» 

In  Epode  13. 

Note. — In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

XV.  Second  Archilochian  Stanza. — First  line.  Iambic  Trimeter ;  sec- 
ond, Dactylic  Trimeter  Catalectic ;  third,  Iambic  Dimeter : 
1.  >_^_i> 


2. 


v->  v.^» 


A 


^   >  _  I  >  _      ^ 

0.  «w*—  v-x  —    l^-'  —   ^-^  — 

In  Epode  11. 

Note. — In  some  editions,  the  second  and  third  lines  are  united. 

Stanzas  of  Two  Lines, 

XVI.  Iambic   Stanza. — First   line,  Iambic   Trimeter;  second.  Iambic 
Dimeter:         ^    >  •  >  i  >  ^ 

1.  O   V-/  J     y^  v^  I    ^-^    V^^* 

£i,     v_^   \^  I     ^_/  V^  

In  the  first  ten  Epodes. 

XVII.  First   Pythiambic   Stanza. — First   line,   Dactylic  Hexameter ; 
second.  Iambic  Dimeter  (624) : 

1.  —  vZTz;  j  —  \j'^  j  —  sZao  j  —  Ovi?  I  —  v^  v^  I  —  ~ 

2.  v_/  —  \^  —  j   s^  —  v_*^^ 

In  Epodes  14  and  15. 

XVIII.  Second  Pythiambic  Stanza. — First  line.  Dactylic  Hexameter ; 
second.  Iambic  Trimeter : 


1.  - 


\^   v_y 


_  '^ 


2.     s^   —  y^  —    |v_«''~~V>'  — 

In  Epode  16. 

XIX.  Alcmanian  Stanza. — First  line.   Dactylic   Hexameter;  second, 
Dactylic  Tetrameter : 

In  Epode  12. 

Not  grouped  into  Stanzas, 

XX.  Iambic  Trimeter: 

S_/     N_-/     I        N_^     S_/     I       V_y      ^-••^* 

In  Epode  17. 


368 


METRES  OF  CATULLUS, 


632.    Il^DEX   TO   THE   LyRIC   MeTRES   OF   HORACE. 
The  Roman  numerals  refer  to  articles  in  the  preceding  outline,  631. 


Book  I. 


ODES. 
1     . 

2  . 

3  . 

4  . 

5  . 

6  .. 
Y  ., 

8  .. 

9  .. 

10  .. 

11  .. 

12  .. 

13  .. 

14  .. 

15  .. 

16  .  . 

17  .. 
IS  .. 

19  .. 

20  .. 

21  .. 

22  .. 

23  .. 

24  .. 

25  .. 

26  .. 

27  .. 

28  .. 

29  .. 

30  .. 

31  .. 

32  .. 

33  .. 

34  .. 

35  .. 

36  .. 

37  .. 

38  .. 


Book  II. 


1 
2 
3 


METRES. 

VII. 

II. 

VI. 

XII. 

V. 

IV. 

IX. 

III. 

I. 

II. 

VIII. 

II. 

VI. 

V. 

IV. 

I. 
I. 

VIII. 
VI. 

II. 

V. 

II. 

V. 
IV. 

II. 
I. 
I. 

IX. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

IV. 

I. 
I. 

VI. 

I. 
II. 


I. 

II. 

I. 


ODES. 

4  . 

5  . 

6  . 

7  . 

8  ., 

9  .. 

10  .. 

11  .. 

12  .. 

13  .. 

14  .. 

15  .. 

16  .. 

17  .. 

18  .. 

19  .. 

20  .. 


Book  III. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 


METKES. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 
II. 

I. 

IV. 

I. 
I. 
I. 

II. 
I. 

X. 

I. 
I. 


I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 
I. 

V. 

11. 

VI. 
IV. 

II. 

XIII. 
V. 

II. 

VI. 
IV. 

I. 
II. 

VI. 

11. 

I. 
II. 

I. 

VI. 
VI. 


ODES. 

26  . 

27  . 

28  . 

29  . 

30  .. 


Book  IV 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 


METRES. 
I. 

n. 

VI. 

I. 

VII. 


VI. 

II. 

VI. 
L 

IV. 

II. 

XI. 
VII. 

I. 

VIII. 

II. 

IV. 

V. 

L 

L 


EroDES. 

EP0DE3.  METRES. 

1    XVI. 

2   XVI. 

3   XVI. 

4   XVI. 

5   XVI. 

6   XVI. 

7 XVI. 

8  XVI. 

9 XVI. 

10 XVI. 

11   XV. 

12   XIX. 

13   XIV. 

14   XVII. 

15 XVII. 

16   XVIII. 

17   XX. 

Secular  Hymn,  II. 


633.  The  metres  of  the  following  poets  must  be  briefly  men- 


tioned : 


I.  Catullus  uses  chiefly  (1)  the  Elegiac  Distich  (615);  (2)  Phalaecian 


METRES  OF  MARTIAL,  PLAUTUS,  ETC. 


369 


verse  (629,  I.) ;  (3)  Choliambus  or  Scazon  (622,  4) ;  (4)  Iambic  Trimeter 
(622) ;  (5)  Priapean  (629,  II.). 

II.  Martial  uses  largely  the  Choliambus  or  Scazon  and  the  Phalaecian 
verse. 

Note  1. — Martial  also  uses  Iambic  and  Dactylic  measures. 

Note  2.— Seneca  in  his  choral  odes  imitates  the  lyric  metres  of  Horace.  He  uses 
Sapphics  very  freely,  and  often  combines  them  into  systems  closing  with  the  Adonic. 

Note  8. — Seneca  also  uses  Anapaestic  ^  verse  with  Spondees  and  Dactyls  as  equiv- 
alents.   This  consists  of  one  or  more  dipodies: 

Venient  annis  |  saecula  seris. 

III.  Plautus  and  Terence  use  chiefly  various  Iambic  and  Trochaic  me- 
tres, but  they  also  use — 

1.  BACcmAC '  Metres,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter ; 

Multas'  res  |  simi'tu  in  |  meo'  cor-  |  de  vor'so.  Plant. 
At  ta'men  ubi  |  fides'  ?  si  |  roges',  nil  |  pendent'  hie.  Ter, 

Note.— The  Molossus, ,  may  take  the  place  of  the  Bacchius,  as  in  multas  res, 

and  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  as  in  at  tamen  ubi, 

2.  Cretic  *  Metres,  generally  Tetrameter  or  Dimeter : 

Nam'  doll  |  non'  doli  |  sunt',  nisi  as-  |  tu'  colas.  Plaut, 
Ut'  malis  |  gau'deant  j  at'que  ex  in-  |  com'modis.   Ter, 

Note  1.— Plautus  also  uses  Anapaestic  metres,  especially  Dimeters  : 

Quod  ago'  subit,  ad-  |  secue'  sequitur.  Plaut. 
This  measure  admits  Dactyls  and  Spondees,  rarely  Proceleusmatics,  w  v^  v^  w 

Note  2.— For  Trochaic  and  Iambic  Metres  in  Comedy,  see  620,  note  2 ;  622,  8. 
Note  8.— For  Special  Peculiarities  in  the  prosody  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see 
576,  notes  2  and  8;  678,  note  2;  680,  notes  2,  3,  and  4.2 

Note  4.— On  the  free  use  of  Synaeresis  in  Comedy,  see  608,  III.,  note  8. 


1  See  603,  note  1;  697,  note  1. 

3  For  a  full  account  of  the  metres  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  see  editions  of  those  poets; 
as  the  edition  of  Plautus  by  Ritschl,  of  a  part  of  Plautus  by  Harrington,  the  edition  of 
Terence  by  Wagner,  and  the  edition  by  Crowell;  also  Spengel,  'Plautus :  Kritik,  Pro- 
sodie,  Metrlk.' 


370 


APPENDIX. 


APPEI^^'DIX. 


I.  Figures  of  Speech. 

634.  A  Figure  is  a  deviation  from  the  ordinary  ybrm,  construction^  or 

signification  of  words. 

Note.— Deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  are  called  Figures  of  Etymology;  from 
the  ordinary  constructions,  Figures  of  Syntax;  and  from  the  ordinary  significations, 
Figures  of  Rhetoric. 

635.  The  principal  Figures  of  Etymology  are — 

1.  Aphaeresis,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  beginning  ol  a  word ;  V^ 
for  est. 

2.  Syncope,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  middle  of  a  word  :  dixe  for 

dixisse. 

8.  Apocope,  the  taking  of  one  or  more  letters  from  the  end  of  a  word :  tun''  for  tune. 

4.  Epenthesis,  the  insertion  of  one  or  more  letters  in  a  word :  Alcumena  for  Ale- 
mena^  dUtwum  for  dlitum. 

5.  Metathesis,  the  transposition  of  letters :  pistris  for  prist  is. 

6.  See  also  Figfkes  of  Prosody,  608. 

636.  The  principal  Figures  of  Syntax  are — 

I.  Ellipsis,  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a  sentence : 

Habitabat  ad  Jovis  {sc.  templum).^  "he  dwelt  near  tJie  temple  of  Jupiter.  Liv. 
Ulc  illius  arma  {fuerunt)^  hie  currus  fuit,  here  were  her  artns,  here  her  chariot, 
Verg. 

1.  Asyndeton  is  an  ellipsis  of  a  conjunction  :  * 

Veni,  vidi,  vici,  I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered.  Suet.    See  also  554,  I.,  6,  with  note  1. 

2.  For  the  Ellipsis  of /acid,  died,  oro,  see  368, 3,  note  1 ;  633, 1.,  note ;  569,  II.,  3. 
8.  For  Aposiopesis  or  Reticbntla.,  see  637,  XI.,  8. 

II.  Brachylogy,  a  concise  and  abridged  form  of  expression : 

Nostrl  Graece  nesciunt  nee  Graecl  Latine,^  our  people  do  not  Icnow  Greek 
and  the  Greeks  (do)  not  (know)  Latin.  Cic.  Natura  hominis  beluls  antecc- 
dit,2  the  nature  of  man  surpasses  (that  of)  the  brutes.   Cic. 

1.  Zeugma  employs  a  word  in  two  or  more  connections,  though  strictly 
applicable  only  in  one : 

Facem  an  helium  gerens,»  whether  at  peace  or  waging  rear.  Sail.  Duces 
pictasque  exure  carinas,  slay  the  leaders  and  hum  the  painted  ships.  Verg. 

1  Asyndeton  is  sometimes  distinguished  according  to  its  use,  as  Adversative,  Ex- 
plicative, Enumerative,  etc.;  see  Nagelsbach,  ' Stilistik,"  §  200. 

^  Here  nesciunt  suggests  sciunt,  and  beluls  in  the  second  example  is  equivalent  to 
beludrtim  naturae. 

3  Gereiis,  applicable  only  to  helium,  is  hero  used  also  otpdcem. 


FIGURES  OF  SYNTAX. 


371 


2.  Syllepsis  is  the  use  of  an  adjective  with  two  or  more  nouns,  or  of  a  verb 
with  two  or  more  subjects : 

Pater  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  father  and  mother  are  dead  (439).  Ter.  Tu 
ei  Tullia  valetis,  you  and  Tullia  are  well.   Cic. 

III.  Pleonasm  is  a  full,  redundant,  or  emphatic  form  of  expression :  ^ 

Erant  itinera  duo,  quibus  itineribus  exire  possent,  there  were  two  ways  by 
which  ways  they  might  depart.  Caes.  Eurusque  Notusque  ruunt,  both  Eurus 
and  Notus  rush  forth.  Verg. 

1.  Polysyndeton  is  a  pleonasm  in  the  use  of  conjunctions,  as  in  the  last  example. 

2.  IIendiadys  is  the  use  of  two  nouns  with  a  conjunction,  instead  of  a  noun  with  an 
adjective  or  genitive ; 

Armis  virisque  for  virls  armatls,  with  armed  men.  Tac. 
8.  Anaphoea  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  beginning  of  successive  clauses: 
Me  ciincta  Italia,  me  universa  civitus  consulem  declaravit,  me  all  Italy,  me  the 
whole  state  declared  consul.  Cic. 

4.  Epiphora  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  successive  clauses : 
Laelius  navus  erat,  ductus  erat,  Laelius  was  diligent,  was  learned.  Cic. 

5.  Epizeuxis  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  a  word : 

Fuit,  fuit  quondam  in  hue  re  publica  virtus,  there  was,  there  was  formerly  virtue 

in  this  republic.  Cic. 

6.  Monosyllabic  prepositions  are  often  repeated  before  successive  nouns,  regularly  so 

with  et — et : 

Et  in  bellicis  et  in  civilibus  officiis,  both  in  military  and  in  civil  offices.  Cic. 
Note. — Other  prepositions  are  sometimes  repeated. 

7.  A  demonstrative  pronoun  or  adverb— /c?,  hoc,  illud,  s'lc,  ita—\&  often  used  some- 
what redundantly  to  represent  a  subsequent  clause.    So  also  <2uid,  in  quid  ctiises  with 

a  clause : 

Illud  to  oro  ut  dihgens  sis,  Task  you  (that  tiling)  to  be  (that  you  be)  diligent.  Cic. 

8.  Pronouns  are  often  redundant  with  quidem  ;  see  450,  4,  note  2. 

9.  Pleonasm  often  occurs  with  licet: 

Ut  liceat  permittitur  =  licet,  it  is  lawful  (is  permitted  that  it  is,  etc.).  Cic. 

10.  Circumlocutions  with  res,  genus,  modus,  and  ratio  are  common. 

IV.  Enallage  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  or 

of  one  grammatical  form  for  another :     . 

Populus  late  rex  (for  regndns),  a  people  of  extensive  sway  (ruling  extensive- 
ly). Verg.  Serus  {sero)  in  caelum  redeas,  may  you  return  late  to  heaven.  Hor. 
Vina  cadis  {mnls  cados)  onerare,  to  fill  the  fiasks  with  wi7ie.  Verg.  Cursus 
justi  ( Justus)  amnis,  the  regular  course  of  the  river.   Liv. 

1.  Antimeria  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech  for  another,  as  in  the  first  two  examples. 

2.  Hypallage  is  the  use  of  one  case  for  another,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

8.  Prolepsis  or  Anticipation  is  the  application  of  an  epithet  in  anticipation  of  the 

action  of  the  verb : 

Scuta  latentia  condunt,  they  conceal  their  hidden  shields.  Verg.    See  also  440,  2. 

4.  Synesis  is  a  construction  according  to  sense,  without  regard  to  grammatical  forms. 
For  examples,  see  438,  6;  445,  5;  461. 


1  Pleonasm,  a  full  or  emphatic  expression,  differs  widely  from  Tautology,  which  is 
a  needless  repetition  of  the  same  meaning  in  ditferent  words. 


372 


AFFENLIX, 


5.  Attraction  unites  in  construction  words  not  united  in  sense : 

Animal  quem  (for  quod)  vocamus  hominem,  the  animal  which  we  call  man.  Cic. 
See  also  445,  4,  8,  and  9. 

6.  AnacolUthon  is  a  want  of  harmony  in  the  construction  of  the  different  parts  of  a 
sentence : 

Si,  ut  dicunt,  omnes  Graios  esse  (Grail  sunt),  if,  as  they  say,  all  are  Greeks,  Cic. 

V.  Hyperbaton  is  a  transposition  of  words  or  clauses : 

Praeter  arma  nihil  erat  super  {svpererat)^  nothing  remained^  except  their 

arms.   Nep.     Valet  atque  vivit  {vivit  atque  valet),  he  is  alive  and  icelL   Ter. 

Subeunt  lucO,  fluviumque  relinquunt,  they/  enter  the  grove  and  leave  the  river, 

Verg. 

1.  Anastrophe  is  the  transposition  of  words  only,  as  in  the  first  example. 

2.  IIysteuon  Peoteron  is  a  transposition  of  clauses,  as  in  the  last  example. 
8.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  compound  word  : 

Nee  prius  respexi  quam  venimus,  nor  did  I  look  hack  lefore  (sooner  than)  we  ar- 
rived. Verg. 

4.  Chiasmus  is  an  inverted  arrangement  of  words  in  contrasted  groups;  see  66JJ. 

637.  Figures  of  Rhetoric  comprise  several  varieties.  The  following 
are  the  most  important :  ^ 

I.  A  Simile  is  a  direct  comparison : 

Mantis  effagit  im5g5  par  levibus  ventis  volucrique  simlllima  somno,  the 
image.,  like  the  swift  winds,  and  very  like  a  fleeting  dream^  escaped  my  hands, 
Verg. 

II.  Metaphor  is  an  implied  comparison,  and  assigns  to  one  object  the 
appropriate  name,  epithet,  or  action  of  another : 

Rel  publicae  vulnus  (for  damnum),  the  wound  of  the  republic.  Cic.  Nau- 
fragium  fortunae,  the  wreck  of  fortune,  Cic.  Aures  veritati  clausae  sunt,  his 
ears  are  closed  against  the  truth.    Cic. 

1.  Allegory  is  an  extended  metaphor,  or  a  series  of  metaphors.  For  an 
example,  see  Horace,  I.,  Ode  14 :  O  navis  .  .  .  occupa  portum,  etc.» 

III.  Metonymy  is  the  use  of  one  name  for  another  naturally  suggested 
by  it : 

Aequo  Marte  (for  proelio)  pagnatum  est,  they  fought  in  an  equal  contest. 
Liv.  Furit  Vulcanus  (ignis)^  the  fire  rages.  Verg.  Proximus  ardet  UcalegOn 
{domus  Ucalegontis),  Ucalegon  hums  next.  Verg. 

Note.— By  this  figure  the  cause  is  often  put  for  the  effect,  and  the  effect  for  the  cause . 
the  property  for  the  possessor,  the  place  or  age  for  the  people,  the  sign  for  the  thing  sig- 
nified, the  material  for  the  manufactured  article,  etc. :  Mars  for  helium,  Vulcanus  for 
ignis,  Bacchus  for  vlnum,  Twhilitds  for  nohiles,  Graecia  for  Graecl,  laurea  for  vic- 
toria, argentum  for  vdsa  argentea,  etc. 


*  On  Figurative  Language,  see  the  eighth  and  ninth  books  of  Quintilian, '  Do  Insti- 
tutione  Oratoria,'  and  the  fourth  book  of '  Auctor  ad  Herennium '  in  Cicero's  works. 

3  In  this  beautiful  allegory  the  poet  represents  the  vessel  of  state  as  having  been 
well-nigh  wrecked  in  the  storms  of  the  civil  war,  but  as  now  approaching  the  haven  of 
peace. 


FIGURES   OF  RHETORIC, 


373 


1.  Autonomasia  designates  a  person  by  some  title   or  office,  as  eversof 
Karthdginis  for  Sclpid,  R&mdnae  eloquentiae  princeps  for  CicerS. 

IV.  Synecdoche  is  the  use  of  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  of  the  whole  for 
a  part ;  of  the  special  for  the  general,  or  of  the  general  for  the  special : 

Statio  male  fida  carinis  (ndvibus),  a  station  unsafe  for  ships.  Verg. 

V.  Irony  is  the  use  of  a  word  for  its  opposite : 

Legatos  bonus  (for  malus)  imperator  vester  non  admisit,  your  good  com- 
mander did  not  admit  the  ambassadors.    Liv.     See  also  607,  3,  note  1. 
Note. — Metaphor,  metonymy,  synecdoche.,  and  irony  are  often  called  Tropes. 

.    VI.  Climax  {ladder)  is  a  steady  ascent  or  advance  in  interest : 

Africano  industria  virtutem,  virtus  gloriam,  gloria  aemulas  comparivit, 
industry  procured  virtue  for  Africanus,  virtue  glory,  glory  rivals.    Cic. 

VII.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration : 

Ventis  et  fulminis  5cior  alis,  swifter  than  the  winds  and  the  wings  of  the 
light niiig.  Verg. 

VIII.  Litotes  denies  something  instead  of  affirming  the  opposite : 
Non  opus  est  =  pemiciosum  est,  it  is  not  necessary.   Cic. 

IX.  Personification  or  Prosopopeia   represents  inanimate  objects  as 
living  beings : 

Cujus  latus  ille  mucro  petebat  ?  whose  side  did  that  toeapon  seek?  Cic.i 

X.  Apostrophe  is  an  address  to  inanimate  objects  or  to  absent  persons  : 
Vos,  Albani  tumuli,  vos  imploro,  /  implore  you,  ye  Alban  hills.   Cic. 

XI.  The  following  figures  deserve  brief  mention : 

1.  Alliteration,  a  repetition  of  the  same  letter  at  the  beginning  of 
successive  words : 

Vl  victa  vis  QS,t,  force  was  conquered  by  force,   Cic.     FortissimI  virl  virtas, 
the  virtue  of  a  most  brave  man,   Cic. 

2.  Apophasis  or  Paraleipsis,  a  pretended  omission :  ^ 

N5n  dicO  te  pecunias  accepisse  ;  raplnas  tuas  omnes  omittO,  I  do  not  state 
that  you  accepted  money  ;  I  omit  all  your  acts  of  rapine.   Cic. 

3.  Aposiopesis  or  Reticentia,  an  ellipsis  which  for  rhetorical  effect 
leaves  the  sentence  unfinished : 

QuOs  ego — sed  mOtOs  praestat  componere  fluctus,  whom,  I— but  it  is  better 
to  calm  the  troubled  waves.  Verg. 

4.  Euphemism,  the  use  of  mild  or  agreeable  language  on  unpleasant 
subjects : 

Si  quid  mih!  humanitus  accidisset,  if  anything  common  to  the  lot  of  man 
should  befall  me — i.  e.,  if  1  should  die.   Cic. 

^™"     '■■    "  "        '  "  II      -I      .1     ■■—     I        11  —  ^■^ll  .I..        ,     -  ,  ,1,   ,  ,1  Mil— ^^M— ^—     .1     ■      ■  I  .11  ■—,__    I.       ■       ,  ■.  ,  ^ 

>  See  also  First  Oration  against  Catiline,  VII. ;  Quae  t^cum  .  .  .  tacita  loquitur,  etc, 
2  Sometimes  called  occupdtio. 


374 


APPENDIX. 


5.  Onomatopoeia,  the  use  of  a  word  in  imitation  of  a  special  sound : 

Boves  mugiunt,  the  cattle  low.  Liv,  Murmurat  unda,  the  wave  murmurs, 
Verg. 

6.  Oxymoron,  an  apparent  contradiction  .* 

Absentes  adsunt  et  egentSs  abundant,  the  absent  are  present  and  the  needy 
have  an  abundance.   Cic. 

v.  Paronomasia  or  Agnomination,  a  play  upon  words : 

Hunc  avium  dulcedo  ducit  ad  avium,»  the  attraction  of  birds  leads  him  to 
the  pathless  wood.   Cic. 

IT.  Latin  Language  and  Literature. 

638.  The  Latin  derives  its  name  from  the  Latlnl  or  Latins^  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Latium  in  Italy.  It  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family,  which  embraces  seven  groups  of  tongues  known  as  the  Indian  or 
Sanskrit^  the  Persian  or  Zend^  the  Greek.,  the  Italian^  the  Celtic,  the  Slavonic^ 
and  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic.  The  Latin  is  the  leading  member  of  the 
Italian  group,  which  also  embraces  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan.  All  these  lan- 
guages have  one  common  system  of  inflection,  and  in  various  respects  strik- 
ingly resemble  each  other.  They  are  the  descendants  of  one  common  speech 
spoken  by  a  single  race  of  men  untold  centuries  before  the  dawn  of  history. 

Note  1.-— In  illustration  of  the  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English,  compare  the  following  paradigms  of  declension  :  * 


\ 


J 


SINGULAR, 

» 

Sanskrit. 

Greek. 

Latin. 

English. 

Stem,     pad, 

7ro5, 

ped, 

foot. 

Nam..  I  ^.^ 

TrOV9, 

pes. 

foot. 

Gen.       padas, 

TToSo?, 

pedis, 

of  a  foot. 

Dat.       pade, 

TToSl, 

ped  I, 

to  a  foot. 

Ace.       padam, 

TToSa,^ 

pedem, 

foot. 

Abl.       padas, 

pede,* 

from  a  foot. 

Ins.        pada, 

Tvith  a  foot. 

Loc.       padi, 

FLURAL. 

in  a  foot. 

Nom..  1  ^-j„„ 
^       Voc     \  P^^'^^' 

ir<J6e?, 

pedes. 

feet. 

Gen.       padam, 

TToSwi/, 

pedum, 

of  feet. 

Dat.       padbhyas, 

7ro<rt, 

pedibus, 

to  feet. 

Ace.       padas, 

irdSas, 

pedes. 

feet. 

Abl.       padbhyas, 

pedibus, 

from  feet. 

Ins.        padbhis. 

with  feet 

Loc.       patsu, 

in  feet. 

*  The  pun,  lost  in  English,  is  in  the  use  of  avium.,  a  remote  or  pathless  place,  with 
avium^  of  birds. 

2  See  also  p.  71,  foot-note  2 ;  p.  83,  foot-note  8. 

^  The  Ablative.^  the  Instrumental,,  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Greek,  but  their 
places  are  supplied  by  the  Genitive  and  the  Dative. 

*  The  final  consonant,  probably  f,  of  the  original  Ablative  ending  is  changed  to  s  in 
padas  and  dropped  in  pede.  The  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Latin, 
but  their  places  are  supplied  by  the  Ablative. 


LATIN  LANGUAGE. 


375 


Note  2.— In  these  paradigms  observe  that  the  initial  p  in  pad,  iroS,  ped,  becomes  / 
xnfooi,  and  that  the  final  d  becomes  t.    This  change  is  in  accordance  with  Grimm's 
Law  of  the  Rotation  of  Mutes  in  the  Germanic  languages.    This  law  is  as  follows : 

The  Primitive  Mutes,  which  generally  remain  unchanged  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  are  changed  in  passing  into  the  Germanic  languages,  to  which  the  English  belongs. 
Thus  the  Sonants,  c?,  g,  in  passing  into  English,  become  Surds,  if,  k;  the  Surds,  c,  A', 
p.  t,  become  Aspirates,  A-,  wh^f  (for  ph)^  th;  the  Aspirates,  M,*  dh,}  gh.}  become 
Sonants,  &,  <i,  g."^ 

Note  S.—The  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  may  be 
abundantly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  forms  of  familiar  words  in  these  different  lan- 
guages. 3 

639.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Latin  whose  date  can  be  determined  are 
found  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  Christ  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Fragments,  however, 
of  laws,  hymns,  and  sacred  formulas,  doubtless  of  an  earlier  though  uncer- 
tain date,  have  been  preserved  in  Cato,  Livy,  Cicero,  and  other  Latin  writers.* 


1  Bh  generally  is  represented  in  Latin  by  b  or  /;  dh  by  d  or  /,  and  gh  by  g^  h,  or  /; 
see  Schleicher,  pp.  244-251. 

2  For  an  account  of  Grimm's  Law,  with  its  applications,  see  Max  Miiller,  '  Science 
of  Language,'  Second  Series,  Lecture  V.;  Papillon,  pp.  85-91. 

3  Compare  the  following : 


Sanskrit. 
dvau, 
trayas, 
sat, 
sapta, 
dafa, 
dvis, 
tris, 
mata, 
pita, 
naus, 
vak, 


Greek. 

Latin. 

5vo, 

duo, 

Tpets, 

tres. 

«^, 

sex. 

CTTTa, 

septem, 

6eKa, 

decem. 

fii?, 

bis, 

TpiS, 

ter. 

H-V'^VP't 

mater, 

TTttTTyp, 

pater, 

vaus, 

navis, 

byj/. 

vox, 

English. 
two. 
three, 
six. 
seven, 
ten. 
twie«. 
thrice, 
mother, 
father, 
navy, 
voice. 


*  Such  are  the  ancient  forms  of  prayer  found  in  Cato  and  other  writers,  the  fragments 
of  Salian  hymns,  of  the  formulas  of  the  Fetial  priests,  and  of  ancient  laws,  especially  of 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  The  following  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios 
shows  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  early  Latin : 

HONO   OINO  .  PLOIRVME  .  C0N8ENTI0NT  .  B 
DVONORO  .  OPTVMO  .  FVISE  .  VIRO 
LVOIOM  .  8CIPI0NB  .  FILIOS  .  BARBATI 
C0N80L  .  CENSOR  .  AIDILI8  .  HIC  .  FVET  .  A 
HBO  .  OEPIT  .   CORSICA  .  ALERIAQVE  .  VRBE 
DEDET  .  TEMPE8TATEBUS  .  AIDE  .  MERETO 

In  ordinary  Latin ; 

Hunc  unum  plurimi  consentiunt  "Romdl 

bonorum  optimum  fuisse  virum  virorum^ 

Liicium  ScTpidnem.    Fllius  Barbati 

consul,  censor,  aedilis  hic  futt  fxpud  vos. 

Hic  cepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urbem  pugnandd; 

dedit  tempestatibus  aedem  merito  votam. 

See  Wordsworth,  'Early  Latin,'  Part  IL;  F.  D.  Allen,  'Early  Latin';  Roby,  I.,  p.  418. 


374 


APPENDIX, 


\ 


5.  Onomatopoeia,  the  use  of  a  word  in  imitation  of  a  special  sound: 
Boves  mugiunt,  the  cattle  low,  Liv.    Murraurat  unda,  the  wave  murmurs, 

Verg. 

6.  Oxymoron,  an  apparent  contradiction* 

Absentes  adsunt  et  egent^s  abundant,  the  absent  are  present  and  the  needy 
have  an  abundance.   Cic. 

7.  Paronomasia  or  Agnomination,  a  play  upon  words : 

Hunc  avium  dulcedO  ducit  ad  avium,»  the  attraction  of  birds  leads  him  to 
the  pathless  wood,   Cic. 

IT.  Latin  Language  and  Literature. 

638  The  Latin  derives  its  name  from  the  Latlnl  or  Latins,  the  ancient 
inhabitants  of  Latium  in  Italy.  It  belongs  to  the  Indo-European  or  Aryan 
family,  which  embraces  seven  groups  of  tongues  known  as  the  Indian  or 
Sanskrit,  the  Persian  or  Zend,  the  Greek,  the  Italian,  the  Celtic,  the  Slavonic, 
and  the  Teutonic  or  Germanic.  The  Latin  is  the  leading  member  of  the 
Italian  group,  which  also  embraces  the  Umbrian  and  the  Oscan.  All  these  lan- 
frua^es  have  one  common  system  of  inflection,  and  in  various  respects  strik- 
ingly resemble  each  other.  They  are  the  descendants  of  one  common  speech 
spoken  by  a  single  race  of  men  untold  centuries  before  the  dawn  ot  history. 

Note  l.-Tn  iUustration  of  the  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English,  compare  the  following  paradigms  of  declension  : » 


Sanskrit. 

Stem,  pad, 

Gen.  padas, 

Dat.  pade, 

Ace.  padam, 

AU.  padas, 

Ins.  pada, 

Loc.  padi, 

^«-.[  padas. 

Gen.  padam, 

Dat,  padbhyas. 

Ace.  padas, 

AU.  padbhyas, 

Ins,  padbhis, 

Loc,  patsu, 


SINGULAR. 

Greek.  Latfn. 


TTOV?, 

TToSl, 


PLURAL. 

TTOO-t, 

TroSas, 


ped, 
pes, 

pedis, 
pedl, 
pedem, 
pede,* 


pedes, 

pedum, 
pedibus, 
pedes, 
pedibus, 


English. 
foot. 

foot. 

of  a  foot, 
to  a  foot, 
foot. 

from  a  foot, 
with  a  foot, 
in  a  foot. 


feet. 

of  feet, 
to  feet, 
feet. 

from  feet, 
with  feet, 
in  feet. 


1  The  pun,  lost  in  EngUsh,  is  in  the  use  of  avium,  a  remote  or  pathless  place,  with 

avium,  of  birds. 

a  See  also  p.  71,  foot-note  2;  p.  83,  foot-note  8.  ^      ^   v  wu  • 

3  The  Ablative,  the  Instrumental,  and  the  Locative  are  lost  in  Greek,  but  their 
places  are  supplied  by  the  Genitive  and  the  Dative. 

4  The  final  consonant,  probably  t,  of  the  original  Ablative  ending  is  changed  to  s  in 
padas  and  dropped  in  pede.  The  Instrumental  and  the  Locative  are  lost  m  Latin, 
but  their  places  are  supplied  by  the  Ablative. 


LATIN  LANGUAGE, 


375 


Note  2.— In  these  paradigms  observe  that  the  initial  p  in  pad,  iroS,  ped,  becomes  / 
\nfoot,  and  that  the  final  d  becomes  t.    This  change  is  in  accordance  with  Grimm's 
Law  of  the  notation  of  Mutes  in  the  Germanic  languages.    This  law  is  as  follows : 

The  Primitive  Mutes,  which  generally  remain  unchanged  in  Sanskrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  are  changed  in  passing  into  the  Germanic  languages,  to  which  the  English  belongs. 
Thus  the  Sonants,  d,  g,  in  passing  into  English,  become  Surds,  t,  k;  the  Surds,  c,  k, 
p,  t,  become  Aspirates,  h,  wh^f  {fov  ph),  th;  the  Abpubates,  bh,^  dh,^  gh,^  become 
Sonants,  b,  d,  g.^ 

Note  8. — The  relationship  between  the  Sanskrit,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English  may  be 
abundantly  illustrated  by  comparing  the  forms  of  familiar  words  in  these  diiferent  lan- 
guages. ^ 

639.  The  earliest  specimens  of  Latin  whose  date  can  be  determined  are 
found  in  ancient  inscriptions,  and  belong  to  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury before  Christ  or  to  the  beginning  of  the  third.  Fragments,  however, 
of  laws,  hymns,  and  sacred  formulas,  doubtless  of  an  earlier  though  uncer- 
tain date,  have  been  preserved  in  Cato,  Livy,  Cicero,  and  other  Latin  writers.* 

1  Bh  generally  is  represented  in  Latin  by  b  or  /;  dh  by  d  or  /,  and  gh  by  g^  h,  or  /; 
see  Schleicher,  pp.  244-251. 

2  For  an  account  of  Grimm's  Law,  with  its  applications,  see  Max  Miiller,  '  Science 
of  Language,'  Second  Series,  Lecture  V. ;  Papillon,  pp.  85-91. 

3  Compare  the  following : 

Sanskrit. 
dvau, 
trayas, 
sat, 
sapta, 
dafa, 
dvis, 
tris, 
mata, 
pita, 
naus, 
vak, 

*  Such  are  the  ancient  forms  of  prayer  found  in  Cato  and  other  writers,  the  fragments 
of  Salian  hjmans,  of  the  formulas  of  the  Fetial  priests,  and  of  ancient  laws,  especially  of 
the  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.  The  following  inscription  on  the  tomb  of  the  Scipios 
shows  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  early  Latin : 

HONO   OINO  .  PLOIRVME  .  CON8ENTI0NT  .  R 
DVONORO  .  OPTVMO  .  FVISE  .  VIRO 
LVCIOM  .  8CIPI0NB  .  FILI08  .  BAEBATI 
CON80L  .  CENSOR  .  AIDILI8  .  HIO  .  FVET  .  A 
HEO  .  CEPIT  .  CORSICA  .  ALERIAQVB  .  VRBB 
DEDET  .  TEMPE8TATEBUS  .  AIDE  .  MEEETO 

In  ordinary  Latin : 

Hunc  unum  pliirimT  consentiunt  B.omdl 

bonorum  optimum  fuisse  virum  virorum^ 

Liicium  ScTpionem.    Fflius  Barbati 

consul,  censor,  aedilis  hic  fuit  apud  vos. 

Hic  cepit  Corsicam  Aleriamque  urbem  pugnandd; 

dedit  tempestatibus  aedem  merito  vbtam. 

See  Wordsworth,  'Early  Latin,'  Part  IL;  F.  D.  Allen,  'Early  Latin';  Koby,  I.,  p.  418. 


Greek. 

Latin. 

English. 

hvo. 

duo, 

two. 

rper?. 

tres. 

three. 

«f, 

sex, 

six. 

CTTTtt, 

septem. 

seven. 

hiKO., 

decem, 

ten. 

fil5, 

bis. 

twice. 

rpi's, 

ter, 

thrice. 

fx>7T7;p, 

mater. 

mother 

irar^p. 

pater. 

father. 

vavs, 

navis, 

navy. 

6»/f, 

vox, 

voice. 

376 


APPENDIX, 


640.  The  history  of  Roman  literature  begins  with  Livius  Andronicus, 
a  writer  of  plays,  and  the  earliest  Roman  author  known  to  us.  It  em- 
braces about  eight  centuries,  from  250  b.  c.  to  550  a.  d.,  and  has  been 
divided  by  Dr.  Freund  into  three  principal  periods.  These  periods,  with 
their  principal  authors,  are  as  follows : 

I.  The  Ante-Classical  Period,  from  250  to  81  b.  c. : 

Ennius,  Plautus,  Terence,  Lucretius. 

II.  The  Classical  Period,  embracing — 

1.  The  Golden  Age^  from  81  b.  c.  to  14  a.  d.  : 


Cicero, 
Caesar, 
Saliust, 


Nepos, 

Livy, 

Vergil, 


Horace, 

Ovid. 

Catullus, 


2.  The  Silver  Age^  from  14  to  180  a.  d.  : 


Phaedrus, 
Velleius, 
The  Senecas, 


The  Plinies, 

Tacitus, 

Curtius, 


Quintilian, 
Suetonius, 
Juvenal, 


III.  The  Post-Classical  Period,  embracing — 
1.  The  Brazen  Age^  from  180  to  476  a.  d.  : 


Justin, 
Victor, 


Eutropius, 
Macro  oi  us. 


Lactantius, 
Ausonius, 


2.  The  Iron  Age^  from  476  to  550  a.  d.  : 

Boethius,  CassiodOrus,  Justinian, 


Tibullus, 
Propertius. 


Persius, 

Lucan, 

Martial. 


Claudian, 
Terentian. 


Priscian. 


III.  The  Roman  Calendar. 

641.  The  Julian  Calendar  of  the  Romans  is  the  basis  of  our  own,  and 
is  identical  with  it  in  the  number  of  months  in  the  year  and  in  the  num- 
ber of  days  in  the  months. 

642.  Peculiarities.— -The  Roman  calendar  has  the  following  pecu- 
liarities : 

I.  The  days  were  not  numbered  from  the  beginning  of  the  month,  as  with 
us,  but  from  three  different  points  in  the  month : 

1.  The  Calends,  the^rst  of  each  month. 

2.  The  Nones,  the  Jl/thr—hut  the  seventh  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
.  October. 

3.  The  Ides,  the  thirteenth — but  the  fifteenth  in  March,  May,  July,  and 
October. 

II.  From  these  three  points  the  days  were  numbered,  not  forward,  but 
backward. 

NoTK.—Hence,  after  the  Ides  of  each  month,  the  days  were  numbered  from  the 
Calends  of  the  following  month. 

III.  In  numbering  backward  from  each  of  these  points,  the  day  before 


ROMAN  CALENDAR, 


377 


each  was  denoted  by  prldie  Kalendas^  NOnds^  etc. ;  the  second  before  each  by 
die  tertio  (not  secundo)  ante  Kalendds^  etc.;  the  third,  by  die  quarto^  etc.;  and 
so  on  through  the  month. 

1.  This  peculiarity  in  the  use  of  the  numerals,  designating  the  second  day  before  the 
Calends,  etc.,  as  the  thirds  and  the  tJiird  as  the  fourth^  etc.,  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
Calends,  etc.,  were  themselves  counted  as  the  first.  Thus  prldie  Kalendds  becomes 
the  second  before  the  Calends,  die  tertio  ante  Kalendds^  the  third,  etc. 

2.  In  dates  the  name  of  the  month  is  added  in  the  form  of  an  adjective  in  agreement 
with  Kalendds^  Nonds^  etc.,  as,  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdnudrids^  often  shortened  to 
quarto  ante  Nonas  Jdn.^  or  /  V.  ante  Nonas  Jan.,  or  without  ante^  as,  IV.  Noiids  Jdn.^ 
the  second  of  January. 

8.  Ante  diem  is  common,  instead  of  die — ante^  as,  ante  diem  quartum  Nonas  Jan. 
for  die  quarto  ante  Nonas  Jan. 

4.  The  expressions  ante  diem  Kal.^  etc.,  prldie  Kal.^  etc.,  are  often  used  as  inde- 
clinable nouns  with  a  preposition,  as,  ex  ante  diem  V.  Idus  Oct.^  from  the  11th  of  Oct» 
Liv.    Ad  prldie  Nonds  Maids,  till  the  6th  of  May.  Cic, 

643.  Calendar  for  the  Year. 


Days  of 

thA 

March,  May,  July, 

January,  August, 

April,  June, 

February. 

Month. 

October'. 

December. 

September,  November. 

1 

Kalendis.  1 

Kalendis. 

Kalendis. 

KalendIs. 

2 

VI.        Nonas.* 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

IV.         Nonas. 

8 

V. 

III. 

III. 

III. 

4 

IV.             " 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

Pridie  Nonas. 

5 

III. 

NONIS. 

NONfs. 

NOnIs. 

6 

Pridie  Nonas. 

VIII,       Idus. 

VIIL      Idiis. 

VIII.       Idas. 

7 

NONis. 

VII. 

VII. 

VII. 

8 

VIII.      Idus. 

VI. 

VI.              « 

VI.              " 

9 

VII. 

V. 

V.               »* 

V.               « 

10 

VI.             ** 

IV. 

IV.             " 

IV.           •» 

11 

V. 

III. 

III.      _      " 

III.      _      " 

12 

IV. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

Pridie  Idus. 

13 

III.      _      " 

TniBUS. 

IDIBITS. 

Idibus. 

14 

Pridie  Idus. 

XIX.    Kalend. a 

XVIII.  Kalend.2 

XVI.    Kalend.' 

15 

Idtbl^s.. 

XVIII.       " 

XVII. 

XV. 

16 

XVir.  Kalend.2 

XVII.         « 

XVI.          " 

XIV.          " 

17 

XVI. 

XVI. 

XV. 

XIII. 

18 

XV. 

XV. 

XIV. 

XII. 

19 

XIV. 

XIV. 

XIII.          " 

XI.             " 

20 

XIII.          ** 

XIII.         « 

XII. 

X.            •• 

21 

XII. 

XII.           ** 

XI.             «^ 

IX.             « 

22 

XI.             « 

XI.             « 

X.            •* 

VIII. 

23 

X. 

X.               « 

IX.             *» 

VII.            " 

24 

IX.              " 

IX.             *' 

VIII. 

VI. 

25 

VIII. 

VIII.          " 

VII.          •* 

V.  (VI.)  3  " 

26 

VII.            " 

VII.            ** 

VI.            " 

IV.  (V.)     « 

27 

VI.             ** 

TI.             ** 

V.             • 

III.  (IV.)  " 

28 

V.               ** 

V. 

IV.           *• 

Prid.Kal.(III.Kal.) 

29 

IV.             *• 

IV.             " 

III.         « 

(Prid.  Kal.) 

80 

III.         ** 

III. 

Pridie  Kalend, 

81 

Pridie  Kalend. 

Pridie  Kalend. 

^'i""^- .  /,'«,.''*^ 

1  To  the  Calends,  Nones,  etc.,  the  name  of 
fore  Nonas,  Idus,  etc.,  ante  is  sometimes  used 

2  The  Calends  of  the  following  month  are 
instance,  is  J[  VII.  Kalendds  Aprlles. 

*  The  inclosed  forms  apply  to  leap-year. 


the  month  must  of  course  be  added.    Be- 
and  sometimes  omitted  (64/5,  III.,  2). 
of  course  meant ;  the  16th  of  March,  for 


378  APPENDIX. 

644.  English  and  Latin  Dates.— The  table  (643)  will  furnish  the 
learner  with  the  English  expression  for  any  Latin  date,  or  the  Latin  ex- 
pression for  any  English  date ;  but  it  may  be  convenient  also  to  have  the 
following  rule : 

I.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Nones  or  Ides,  subtract  the  number 
diminished  by  one  from  the  number  of  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall: 

VIII.  ante  Idus  Jan.  =  13  —  (8  —  1)  =  13  —  7  =  6th  of  January. 

II.  If  the  day  is  numbered  from  the  Calends  of  the  following  month,  sub- 
tract the  number  diminished  by  two  from  the  number  of  days  in  the  current 
month  : 

XVIII.  ante  Kal.  Feb.  =  31  -  (18  —  2)  =  31  - 16  =  15th  of  January. 

Note.— In  leap-year  the  24th  and  the  25th  February  are  both  called  the  sixth  before 
the  Calends  of  March,  VI.  Kal.  Mart.  The  days  before  the  24th  are  numbered  as  if 
the  month  contained  only  28  days,  but  the  days  after  the  25th  are  numbered  regularly 
for  a  month  of  29  days  :   V.,  IV.,  III.  Kal,  Mart,  and  prUie  Kal.  Mart. 

645.  The  Roman  day,  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  and  the  night,  from 
sunset  to  sunrise,  were  each  divided  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  into  twelve 
hours. 

1.  The  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  of  three  Roman  hours 
each. 

2.  The  hour,  being  uniformly  V,2  of  the  day  or  of  the  night,  of  course  varied 
in  length  with  the  length  of  the  day  or  night  at  different  seasons  of  the  year. 

IV.  Roman  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures. 

646.  The  principal  Roman  coins  were  the  as,  of  copper ;  the  sestertius, 
quindrius,  denarius,  of  silver ;  and  the  aureus,  of  gold.  Their  value  in  the 
classical  period  may  be  approximately  given  as  follows : 

As 1  to  2  cents. 

Sestertius 5  " 

Quinarius 10  •* 

Denarius 20  ** 

Aureus  =  25  denarii $5.00 

1.  The  as,  the  unit  of  the  Roman  currency,  contained  originally  a  pound 
of  copper,  but  it  was  diminished  from  time  to  time  till  at  last  it  contained 
only  Y24  of  a  pound. 

Note.— An  as,  whatever  its  weight,  was  divided  into  twelve  unciae, 

2.  The  sestertius  contained  originally  2^  dsses,  the  quindrius  5,  and  the 
denarius  10  ;  but  as  the  as  depreciated  in  value,  the  number  of  asses  in  these 
coins  was  increased. 

3.  The  as  is  also  used  as  a  general  unit  of  measure.     Thus — 

1)  In  Weight,  the  <^  is  a  pound,  and  the  uncia  an  ounce. 

2)  In  Measure,  the  as  is  a  foot  or  a  jngerum  (648,  IV.  and  V.),  and  the 
uncia  is  ^i,  of  a  foot  or  of  a  jflgerum. 

3)  In  Interest,  the  as  is  the  unit  of  interest— i.  e.,  1  per  cent,  a  month. 


MONEY,   WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES, 


379 


or  12  per  cent,  a  year;  the  uncia  is  Via  per  cent,  a  month,  or  1  per  cent,  a 
year ;  and  the  semis  is  Via  per  cent,  a  month,  or  6  per  cent,  a  year,  etc. 

4)  In  Inheritance,  the  as  is  the,  whole  estate,  and  the  uncia  V12  of  it:  hires 
ex  dsse,  heir  of  the  whole  estate  ;  heres  ex  dodrante,  heir  of  Via» 

647.  Computation  of  Money. — In  all  sums  of  money  the  common  unit 
of  computation  was  the  sestertius,  also  called  nummus ;  but  four  special 
points  deserve  notice : 

I.  In  all  sums  of  money,  the  units,  tens,  and  hundreds  are  denoted  by 
sestertii  with  the  proper  cardinals : 

Quinque  sestertii,  5  sesterces;  vigmti  sestertii,  20  sesterces ;  ducenti  ses- 
tertii, 200  sesterces, 

II.  One  thousand  sesterces  are  denoted  by  mllle  sestertii,  or  mille  sester- 
tium. 

in.  In  sums  less  than  1,000,000  sesterces,  the  thousands  are  denoted  either 
(1)  by  milia  sestertium  (gen.  plur.),  or  (2)  by  sestertia  : 

Duo  milia  sestertium,  or  duo  sestertia,  2,000  sesterces  ;  quinque  milia  ses- 
tertium, or  quinque  sestertia,  5,000  sesterces. 

Note.— With  sestertia  the  distributives  are  generally  used,  as,  blna  sestertia, 

IV.  In  sums  containing  one  or  more  millions  of  sesterces,  sestertium  wdth 
the  value  of  100,000  sesterces  is  used  with  the  proper  numeral  adverb,  decies, 
vicies,  etc.     Thus — 

Decies  sestertium,  1,000,000  (10x100,000)  sesterces;  vicies  sestertium, 
2,000,000  (20  X  100,000)  sesterces. 

1.  Sestertium.— In  the  examples  under  IV.,  sestertium  is  treated  as  a  neuter  noun 
In  the  singular,  though  originally  it  was  probably  the  genitive  plural  of  sestertius^  and  the 
full  expression  for  1,000,000  sesterces  was  Deeies  centina  milia  sestertium,.  Centena 
milia  was  afterward  generally  omitted,  and  finally  sestertium  lost  its  force  as  a  genitive 
plural,  and  became  a  neuter  noun  in  the  singular,  capable  of  declension. 

2.  Sometimes  sestertium  is  omitted,  leaving  only  the  numeral  adverb:  as,  decies, 
1,000,000  sesterces. 

3.  The  sign  HS  is  often  used  for  sestertii,  and  sometimes  for  sestertia,  or  sestertium : 
Decern  HS  =  10  sesterces  (HS  =  sestertii).    Dena  HS  =  10,000  sesterces  (HS  =  ses- 
tertia).   Decies  HS  =  1,000,000  sesterces  (HS  =  sestertium). 

648.  Weights  and  Measures. — The  following  weights  and  measures 
deserve  mention : 

I.  The  Libra,  also  called  As  or  Pondo,  equal  to  about  11)^  ounces  avoir- 
dupois, is  the  basis  of  Roman  weights. 

I.  The  Libra,  like  the  as  in  money,  is  divided  into  12  parts. 

II.  The  Modius,  equal  to  about  a  peck,  is  the  basis  of  dry  measure. 

III.  The  Amphora,  containing  a  Koman  cubic  foot,  equivalent  to  about 
seven  gallons,  is  a  convenient  basis  of  liquid  measure. 

IV.  The  Roman  Pes  or  Foot,  equivalent  to  about  11.6  inches,  is  the  basis 
of  long  measure. 

'Note.— Cubitus  is  equivalent  to  1}^  Roman  feet,  passus  to  5,  and  stadium  to  625. 


380 


APPENDIX. 


V.  The  Jugerum^  containing  28,800  Roman  square  feet,  equivalent  to 
about  six  tenths  of  an  acre,  is  the  basis  of  square  measure. 

V.  Roman  Names. 
649.  A  Roman  citizen  usually  had  three  names.  The  first,  ov  prae- 
ndmen,  designated  the  individual ;  the  second,  or  nomen^  the  gem  or  tribe  ; 
and  the  third,  or  cogyiomen^  the  family.  Thus,  Publius  Cornelius  Sclpib 
was  Publius  of  the  Sclpib  family  of  the  Cornelian  gens,  and  Gaius  Julius 
Caesar  was  Gaius  of  the  Caesar  family  of  the  Julian  gens. 


1.  The  praenomen  was  often  abbreviated : 


A.  =  Aulus. 
Ap.  =  Appius. 

C.  =  Gaius. 
Cn.  =  Gnaeus. 

D.  =  Decimus. 
L.  =  Lucius. 


S.  (Sex.)  =  Sextus. 

Scr.  =  Servius. 

Sp.  =  Spurius." 

T.  =  Titus. 

Ti.  (Tib.)  =  Tiberius. 


M.  =  Marcus. 
M'.  =  Manias. 
Mam.  =  Mamercus. 
N.  =  Numerius. 
P.  =  Publius. 
Q.  (Qu.)  =  Quintus. 

2.  Sometimes  an  agnomen  or  s^irname  was  added.  Thus  SclpiS  received 
the  surname  A/ricdnus  from  his  victories  in  Africa :  Publius  Cornelius  JScipid 
Africdnus, 

3.  An  adopted  son  took  (1)  the  full  name  of  his  adoptive  father,  and  (2) 
an  dgnmien  in  anus  formed  from  the  name  of  his  own  gens.  Thus  Ocidvius 
when  adopted  by  Caesar  became  Gdius  Julius  Caesar  Octdvidnus.  After- 
ward the  title  of  Augustus  was  conferred  upon  him,  making  his  full  name 
Gdius  Julius  Caesar  Octdvidnus  Augustus, 

4.  Women  were  generally  known  by  the  name  of  their  g5ns.  Thus  the 
daughter  of  Julius  Caesar  was  simply  Julia  ;  of  Tullius  Cicero,  Tullia  ;  of 
Cornelius  Scipio,  Cornllia,  Three  daughters  in  any  family  of  the  Cornelian 
gC-ns  would  be  known  as  Cornelia^  Cornelia  Secunda  or  Minor^  and  Cornelia 
Tertia, 

650.  Various  abbreviations  occur  in  classical  authors : 


A.  D.  =  ante  diem. 

Aed.  =  aedilis. 

A.  U.  C.  =  anno  urbis 

conditae. 
Cos.  =  consul. 
Coss.  =  cOnsules. 
D.  =  divus. 
D.  D.  =  dono  dedit. 
Des.  =  designatus. 
D.  M.  =  diis  manibus. 
D.  S.  =  de  sud. 
D.    S.   P.  P.  =  dg    sua 

pecunia  posuit. 
Eq.  Rom.  =  eques  Ro- 

manus. 
F.  =  filius. 


F.    C.  =  faciendum  cu- 

ravit. 
Id.  =  Idus, 
Imp.  =  imperator. 
K.  (Kal.)  =  Kalendae. 
Leg.  =  legatus. 
Non.  =  Nonae. 
O.   M.  =  optimus  max- 

imus. 
P.  C.  =  patres  conscrip- 

tl. 
Pont.     Max.  =  pontifex 

maximus. 
P.     R.  =  populus     RO- 

manus. 
Pr.  =  praetor. 


Praef.  =  praefectus. 

Proc.  =  proconsul. 

Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  =  quod 

bonum,    felix,    faus- 

tumque  sit. 
Quir.  =  Quiritgs. 
Resp.  =  res  publica. 
S.  =  senatus. 
S.  C.  =  senatus  cOnsul- 

tum. 
S.  D.  P.  =  salutem  dicit 

plurimam. 
S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  senatus 

populusque  ROmanus. 
Tr.  PI.  =  tribtlnus  plc- 

bis. 


X 


iPPENDIX. 


381 


YI.  Vowels  before  two  Consonants  or  a  Double  Consonant. 

651.  On  the  natural  quantity^  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  a 
double  consonant,  or  the  letter  j,  observe — 

L  That  vowels  are  long  before  ns  and  nf ;  generally  also  before  gn 

and  j : 

consclus,  consensus,  cCnstans,  construO,  consul,  Insanus,  Inscribe,  Inse- 
quor,  Instans,  Insula,  amans,  monens,  regens,  audiens ;  confero,  conficio,  con- 
fluo,  infaraia,  Tnfelix,  Infensus,  Infero,  Infrequens ;  abiegnus,  benlgnus,  mag- 
nus,  malignus,  rfignum,  slgnum,  stagnum ;  ciijus,  ejus,  hujus,  major,  pejor. 

IL  That  all  vowels  which  represent  diphthongs,  or  are  the  result  of 
contraction,  are  long  : 

existimo,  amasse,  audlssem,  introrsum,^  introrsus,  prorsus,  quorsum,  rur- 
sum,  sursum,  malle,  mallem,  nolle,  nollem,  nuUus,  ullu3,2  Mars,^  Martis. 

in.  That  the  long  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives — 

1.  In  asc5,  esco,  and  isco  in  Inceptives  from  verbs  of  the  first,  sec- 
ond,  or  fourth  conjugation: 

gelascO,  labasco,  ac6sc5,  aresco,  floresco,  latSsco,  patesco,  sil6sc5,  virescO, 
edormisco,  obdormisco,  scisco,  consciscO. 

2.  In  large  classes  of  words  of  which  the  following  are  examples : 

cras-tinus,  duc-tilis,  fas-tus,  ne-fas-tus,  flos-culus,  jus-tus,  in-jus-tus,  jus- 
tissimus,  jus-titia,  matr-imonium,  os-culum,  os-culor,  os-tium,  palus-ter,  ras- 
trum,  ros-trum,  rus-ticus,  salic-tum. 

IV.  That  vowels  are  long  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative  Singular  of 
nouns  and  adjectives  with  long  increments  in  the  Genitive : 

frtix,  lex,  lux,  pax,  plebs,  rex,  thorax,  vox. 

V.  That  in  the  second  person  of  the  Perfect  Active  i  is  long  in  the 
penult : 

amavisti,  amavlstis,  monuisti,  monulstis,  rSxisti,  rexistis,  audivlsti,  audi- 
vlstis. 


1  It  is  often  difficult,  and  sometimes  absolutely  impossible,  to  determine  the  natural 
quantity  of  vowels  before  two  consonants,  but  the  subject  has  of  late  been  somewhat 
carefully  investigated  by  Eitschl,  Schmitz,  and  others.  An  attempt  has  been  made  in  this 
article  to  collect  the  most  important  results  of  these  labors.  The  chief  sources  of  in- 
formation upon  this  subject  are  (1)  ancient  inscriptions,  (2)  Greek  transcriptions  of 
Latin  words,  (3)  the  testimony  of  ancient  grammarians,  (4)  the  comic  poets,  and  (5) 
etymology.  See  Schmitz,  Beitrage';  Ritschl,  'Rheinisches  Museum,'  vol.  xxxi.,  pp. 
481—492;  Scholl,  *Acta  Societatis  Philologae  Lipslensis/  vol.  vi.,  pp.  71—215;  Muller, 
»Orthographlae  et  ProsSdiae  Latinae  SummSrium';  Foerster, 'Rbeinisches  Museum,* 

xxxiii.,  pp.  291-299. 

2  Intrdrsum  from  intrdversum  ;  fdlus  from  unulns;  Mdrs  from  Mavora. 


382 


APPENDIX. 


INDEX  OF   VERBS, 


383 


NoTE.—According  to  Priscian,i  e  is  long  before  xl,  xUti,  etc.,  In  the  Perfect  Active : 
rexl^  rexitj  texerunt,  ilUximus. 

VI.  That  long  vowels  occur  in  the  following  words  and  in  their  deriva- 
tives : 


actio 

actito 

actor 

actus 

axilla 

classis 

crispus 

damma 

emptus 

festus 

Festus 

Juppiter 

lectito 

lector 

lectus 

llctor 

llttera 

luella 

Marcus 

maxilla 


maxunus 

inllle 

narro 

Norba 

nuntius 

ordO 

Ornamentum 

Orno 

pastor 

paxillus 

Pollio 

Popillius 

priscus 

propinquus 

proximus 

querella 

quinque 

quTntus 

rectio 

rector 


rectus 

Sallustius 

sescenti 

Sestius 

strUctor 

structura 

structus 

taxillus 

tossillae 

tristis 

unctiS 

unctitO 

unctor 

tlnctura 

unctus 

Vestlnua 

vestis 

vexillum 

villa 

Vlpsanius 


VII.  That  vowels  are  probably  short  before  nt  and  nd :  ^ 

amant,  amantis,  monent,  monentis,  prudentis,  prudentia,  amandus,  mon- 
endus,  regendus. 

VIII.  That  the  short  vowels  of  Primitives  are  retained  in  Derivatives : 
inter-nus,  juven-tus,  liber-tas,  munus-culum,  patr-imonium,  pauper-culus, 

super-bus,  vir-tus. 

IX.  That  vowels  are  generally  short  in  the  ending  of  the  Nominative 
Singular  of  nouns  and  adjectives  with  short  increments  in  the  Genitive : 

adeps,  calix,  dux,  grex,  hiems,  judex,  nex,  nux. 

jjoTE.— Vowels  before  final  na  are  of  course  excepted. 

X.  That  the  first  vowel  in  the  following  endings  is  short : 

1.  emus,  ernius,  erninus;  umus,  urnius,  urninus: 

maternus,  paternus,  Liternius,  Litemlnus,  tacitumus,  Saturnius,  Satunn- 
nus. 

2.  ustus,  estus,  ester,  estis,  esticus,  estinus,  estris : 

robustus,  venustus,  vetustus,  honestus,  modestus,  campester,   Silvester, 
agrestis,  caelestis,  domesticus,  clandestinus,  terrestris. 

XI.  That  all  vowels  are  to  be  treated  as  short  unless  there  are  good 
reasons  for  believing  them  to  be  long. 

1  See  Book  IX.,  28. 

a  See  p.  87,  foot-note  2 ;  p.  61,  foot-note  2. 


IlifDEX    OF    VERBS. 


This  Index  contains  an  alphabetical  list,  not  only  of  all  the  simple 
verbs  in  common  use  which  involve  any  important  irregularities,  but  also 
of  such  compounds  as  seem  to  require  special  mention.  In  regard  to 
compounds  of  prepositions  (344)  observe — 

1.  That  the  elements — preposition  and  verb — often  appear  in  the  com- 
pound in  a  changed  form ;  see  344,  4-6. 

2.  That  the  stem-vowel  is  often  changed  in  the  Perfect  and  Supine ; 
see  221. 

Al-licio,  ere,  lexi,  Icctura,  217,  2 ;  p. 

130,  foot-note  8. 
Alo,  ere,  alui,  alitum,  altum,  273. 
Amb-igo;  see  agd^  271,  2. 
Amb-io,  295,  N.  2. 
Amicio,  ire,  ui  (xi),  turn,  285. 
Amo,  205. 

Amplector,  T,  araplexus  sum,  283. 
Ango,  ere,  anxi,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
An-nuo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Ante-capio,  p.  128,  foot-note  14. 
Apage,  def.^  297,  III. 
Apefio,  ire,  ui,  tum,  285. 
Apiscor,  i,  aptus  sum,  283. 
Ap-pareo;  see^are?(5,  262;  301. 
Ap-peto ;  see  peto^  278. 
Ap-plico;  nee  plied,  258. 
Ap-pono;  secjo^Tid,  273. 
Arcesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 
Ardeo,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  265. 
Aresco,  ere,  arui,  — ,  281. 
Argue,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Ar-ripio ;  see  rapiOy  274. 
A-scendo ;  see  scando,  272,  3. 
A-spergo ;  see  spargo,  270. 
A-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,  217,  2. 
As-sentior,  iri,  sensus  sum,  288,  2. 
As-sideo  ;  see  sedeo^  267,  2. 
At-texo ;  see  texo,  274. 
At-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
At-tingo ;  see  tango^  271. 
At-toll6  ;  see  tollo,  271. 
Audeo,  ere,  ausus  sum,  268,  3. 
Audio,  211. 
Au-fero,  292,  2. 
Augeo,  ere,  auxi,  auctum,  264. 
Ave,  aef.  ;  see  have,  297,  III. 


Ab-do,'  ere,  didi,  ditum,  271.     • 

Ab-icio;  seejacio,  271,  2. 

Ab-igo  ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 

Aboleo,  ere,  evi,  itum,  p.  124,  foot- 
note 2. 

Abolesco,  ere,  olevi,  olitum,  277. 

Ab-ripio;  see  rapid,  274. 

Abs-condo  ;  see  ahdo,  271. 

Ab-sum,  290,  I. 

Ac-cendo,  ere,  i,  censum,  272,  3. 

Ac-cido  ;  see  cado,  272;  301. 

Ac-cino  ;  see  cand,  271. 

Ac-cipio  ;  see  capid,  271,  2. 

Ac-colO ;  see  colo,  274. 

Ac-cumbo,  ere,  cubui,  cubitum,  273. 

Acesco,  ere,  acul,  — ,  281. 

Ac-quiro  ;  see  quaero,  278. 

Acuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 

Ad-do  ;  see  abdo,  271 ;  255,  I.,  4. 

Ad-fari,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 

Ad-fero,  292,  2. 

Ad-imo  ;  see  emd,  271,  2. 

Ad-ipiscor,  i,  adeptua  sum,  283,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ad-olesc6  ;  see  abolesco,  277. 

Ad-orior ;  see  orior,  288,  2. 

Ad-spicio ;  see  aspicio,  217,  2. 

Ad-stO,  259,  N.  2. 

Ad-sum,  290,  I. 

Ag-gredior ;  see  gradior^  283. 

A-gnosco ;  see  nosco,  278. 

Ago,  ere,  egl,  actum,  271,  2. 

AiO,  def.,  297,  II. 

Albeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

Algeo,  ere,  alsi,  — ,  265. 


1  Final  o  in  verbs  is  sometimes  shortened,  though  rarely  in  the  best  writers. 


384 


INDEX  OF  VERBS, 


B 

Balbiiti5,  Ire,  --,  284,  N.  2. 
Batuo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
BibO,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Biandior,  Irl,  Itus  sum,  288. 

C 

Cad6,  ere,  cecidi,  casum,  272. 
Caecutio,  ire,  — .  284,  N.  2. 
Caedo,  ere,  ceclai,  caesura,  272. 
Calesco,  ere,  calui,  — ,  281. 
Calveo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Candeo,  ere,  ui,  262,  N.  1. 
Cando,  p.  129,  foot-note  14. 
Caneo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Cano,  ere,  cecini,  cantum,  271. 
Capesso,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 
Capio,  ere,  cepi,  captum,  217 ;  218  ; 

271,  2. 
Carpo,  ere,  si,  turn,  269. 
Caveo,  ere.  cavi,  cautum,  266. 
Cedo,  ere,  ccssi,  cessum,  270. 
Cede,  tf?^'.,  297,111. 
Cello,  008. ;  see  excello,  273,  N. 
Ceno,  257,  N.  2. 
Censeo,  ere,  ul,  cSnsum,  263. 
Cerno,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 
Cieo,  ere,  civi,  citum,  265,  N. 
Cingo,  ere,  cinxl,  cinctum,  269. 
Cio,  265,  N. 

Circura-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13, 
Circum-do,  255,  1.,  4;  259,  N.  1. 
Circura-sisto ;  see  sido^  271. 
Circum-sto,  255,  I.,  4. 
Clanffo,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Claudo,  ere,  clausl,  clausura,  270. 
Claudo,  ere,  —  {to  be  lame)^  272,  N.  2. 
Co-arguO ;  see  arguo^  279. 
Co-emo,  p.  128,  foot-note  15. 
Coepi,  def.^  297. 
Co-gnosc6  ;  see  nosco^  278. 
COgo,  ere,  cocgi,  coactura ;  see  ago^ 

271,  2. 
Col-lido ;  see  laedd^  270. 
Col-ligo;  see  leao^  271,  2. 
Col-luceo ;  see  luceo^  265. 
Colo,  ere,  ui,  cultura,  274. 
Com-edo,  291,  N.  3. 
Com-miniscor,  i,  commentus  sum,  283. 
Com-moveo  ;  see  moved^  266. 
Com-parco  (perco);  qqq  parco^  272. 
Comperio,  ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  N. 
CompescO,  ere,  pcscui,  — ,  273,  N. 
Com-pingo;  see  pango^  271. 
Com-i:)lector,  1,  plexus  sum. 
Com-pleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
Com-primO  ;  see  premo^  270. 
Com-pung(^,  ere,    punxi,   punctura ; 

6ee  pungd^  271. 


Con-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Con-cido ;  see  caedo^  272. 
Con-cino ;  see  cano,  271. 
Con-cliido ;  see  claudo,  270. 
Con-cupisco,    ere,   cupivi,    cupltum, 

281,  N. 
Con-cutio  ;  see  quatid,  270. 
Con-do;  see  abao,  271. 
Con-fercio ;  fieefarcio,  286. 
Con-fero,  292,  2. 
Con-ficio ;  see  facio,  271,  2. 
Con-fit,  def.,  297,  HI. 
Con-fiteor;  see/ateor,  268,  2. 
Con-fringo;  see/rango,  271,  2. 
Con-gruo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Coniveo,    ere,    nivi,    nlxl,  — ,   265; 

267,  3. 
Conor,  260. 

Con-serO ;  see  «ero,  277,  N. 
COn-sisto;  see  sisto,  271. 
Con-spicio,  ere,  spexi,  spectum,217,2. 
Con-stituo ;  see  statuo,  279. 
COn-sto,  301 ;  see  sto,  259. 
Consulo,  ere,  ul,  tum,  274. 
Con-temno ;  see  iemno,  272,  N.  2. 
Con-tex6 ;  see  texo,  274. 
Con-tingo ;  see  taiigo,  271 ;  301. 
Convalesco,  ere,valui,  valitum,  281,  N, 
Coquo,  ere,  coxi,  coctum. 
Cor-ripiO ;  see  rapiO^  274. 
Cor-ruo ;  see  ruo,  279. 
Crebresco,  ere,  crebrui,  — ,  282,  N. 
Credo,  ere,  crcdidi,  creditum,  271. 
Crepo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
CrOsco,  ere,  crevi,  cretum,  277. 
Cubo,  are,  ul,  itum,  258. 
Cudo,  ere,  ciidi,  cusum,  272,  8. 
Cumbo ;  see  accumbd,  273. 
Cupio,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  217, 1 ;  278. 
Curro,  ere,  cucurri,  cursum,  272. 

D 

Debeo,  262. 

De-cerpo,  ere,  si,  tum,  p.  127,  foot- 
note 2. 
Decet,  impers.,  299. 
De-do ;  see  abdo,  271. 
De-fendo,  ere,  I,  fensum,  272,  3. 
De-fetiscor;  see/atiscor,  2S3, 
De-fit,  def,,  297,  III. 
Dego,  ere,  degi ;  see  agd,  271,  2. 
Delecto,  impers.,  301. 
Deleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 
De-ligo;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
De-mic6 ;  see  inico^  258. 
DOrao,  ere,  dempsi,  demptum. 
De-pango;  see  pango,  271. 
De-primo;  see  premo,  270. 
Deps6,  ere,  ul,  itum,  tum,  273. 
De-8cend6  ;  see  scandd,  272,  3. 


(» 


y^)/\/^^Vy^'  "^  ' ' 


;  A/- 


INDEX  OF   VERBS, 


385 


De-silio ;  see  salio,  285. 
De-sipio ;  see  sapid,  278. 
De-sum,  290,  I. 
De-tendo  ;  see  tendo,  271. 
De-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
De-vertor;  see  verto,  272,  3. 
Dico,  ere,  dixi,  dictum,  238. 
Dif-fero,  292,  2. 
Di-gnosco ;  see  nosed,  278. 
Di-li^o ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Dl-mico ;  see  mico,  258. 
Di-rigo,    ere,  rexi,  rectum,   p.   127, 

foot-note  2. 
Disco,  ere,  didici,  — ,  271. 
Dis-crepo  ;  see  crepo,  258. 
Dis-cumbo;  see  accumbo,  273. 
Dis-pertior;  see  partior,  288. 
Dis-pliceo;  see  placed,  2Q2, 
Dis-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Di-stinguo ;  see  exstingud,  269. 
Di-stO,  259,  N.  2. 
Ditesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Divido,  ere,  visi.  visum,  270. 
Do,  dare,  dedi,  datum,  259. 
Doceo,  ere,  ui,  dOctum,  263. 
Dolet,  impers,,  301. 
Domo,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 
Dono,  259. 

Duco,  ere,  duxi,  etum,  269;  238. 
Dulcesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Duplico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
DurescO,  ere,  durui,  — ,  282,  N. 

E 

Edo,  ere,  edi,  esum,  272,  2 ;  291. 
Ef-fari,  p.  142,  foot-note  5. 
Egeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
E-licio,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
E-ligo;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
K-mico  ;  see  mico,  258. 
Emineo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Emo,  ere,  emi,  emptum,  271,  2. 
E-neco,  are,  ui,  tum,  258. 
Eo,  ire,  ivi,  itum,  295. 
Esurio,  ire,  — ,  itum,  284,  N.  2. 
E-vado,  ere,  vasi,  vasum,  270. 
Ex-iirdesco,  ere,  arsi,  arsum,  281,  N. 
Excello.  ere,  ui  (rare),  — ,  273,  N. 
Ex-cluQo  ;  see  claudo,  270. 
Ex- curro  ;  see  cwro,  272. 
Ex-olesco ;  see  abolesco,  277. 
Expergiscor,  i,  experrectus  sum,  283. 
Ex-perior,  iri,  pertus  sum,  288,  2. 
Ex-pleo  ;  see  compleo,  261. 
Ex-plico;  see  phco,  2bS. 
Ex-pl6do  ;  see  plaudo,  270. 
Ex-stinguo,  ere,  stinxi,  stinctum,  269. 
Ex-sto,  259,  N.  2. 
Ex- tendo  ;  see  tendo,  271. 
Ex-tollo;  see  tollo,  271. 


F 


Facesso,  ere,  Ivi,  i,  itum,  278. 
Facio,  ere,  feci,  factum,  217,  1 :  238  • 
271,  2.  »        >     1         , 

Fallo,  ere,  fefelli,  falsum,  272. 

Farcio,  ire,  farsi,  fartum,  farctum,  286. 

Fari,  def,,  297,  II. 

Fateor,  eri,  fassus  sum,  268,  2. 

Fatisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Fatiscor,  I,  —,  283. 

Faveo,  ere,  favi,  fautum,  266. 

Fendo,  obs.  ;  see  d'efendo,  272,  3. 

Ferio,  ire,  —,  284,  N.  2. 

Fero,  ferre,  tuli,  latum,  292. 

Ferocio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 

Ferveo,  ere,  fervi,  ferbul,  — ,  267,  3. 

Fido,  ere,  fisus  sum,  283. 

Figo,  ere,  fixi,  fixum,  270. 

Findo,  ere,  fidi,  fissum,  272,  3. 

Fingo,  ere,  finxi,  fictum. 

Finio,  284. 

Fio,  fieri,  factus  sum,  294. 

Flaveo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 

Flecto,  ere,  flexi,  flexum,  270. 

Fleo,  ere,  evi,  etum,  261. 

Floreo,  ere,  ui,  -— ,  262,  N.  1. 

Floresco,  ere,  flOrui,  — ,  281. 

Fluo,  ere,  fluxi,  fluxum,  279,  N. 


Frango,  ere,  fre^i,  fractum,  271,  2. 
Fremo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Frendo,  ere,  — ,  fressum,  fresum,  270. 
Frico,  are,  ui,  atum,  tum,  258. 
Frigeo,  ere,  frixi  (rare),  —  265. 
Frondeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Fruor,  i,  fructus,  fruitus  sum,  283. 
Fugio,   ere,  fugi,   fugitum,    217,    1 ; 

271,2. 
Fulcio,  ire,  fulsi,  fultum,  286. 
Fulgeo,  ere,  fulsi,  — ,  265. 
FulgO,  265,  foot-note  5. 
Fulminat,  impers,,  300. 
Fundo,  ere,  fudi,  fusum,  272,  2. 
Fungor,  i,  functus  sum,  283. 
Euro,  ere,  ui,  — ,  273,  N. 

G 

Gannio,  Ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Gaudeo,  ere,  gavisus  sum,  268,  3. 
Gemo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Gero,  ere,  gessi,  gestum,  269. 
Gigno,  ere,  genui,  genitum,  273. 
Glisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Gradior,  i,  gressus  sum,  217,  3;  283. 
Grandesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Grandinat,  impers.,  300. 
Grave  SCO,  ere,  — . 


^.xu 


386 


INDEX  OF   VERBS, 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


387 


Habeo,  262. 

Haereo,  ere,  haesi,  haesum,  265. 

Haurio,  ire,  hausi,  haustum,  haustu- 

rus,  nausurus,  286. 
Have,  def,,  297,  111. 
Hebeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Hisco,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 
Honoro,  257. 

llorreo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Hortor,  232 ;  200. 
Huineo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 


TcO,  ere,  ici,  ictum,  272,  3. 
I-gnOsco ;  see  nosco^  278. 
ll-liciO,  ere,  lexl,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Il-lldo ;  see  laedo^  270. 
Imbuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Immineo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Im-parco  ;  see  parco^  272. 
Im-pertior ;  see  partlor,  288. 
Im-pingO ;  seepan(/o,  271. 
Im-pleo,  p.  124,  foot-note  1. 
In-cendo ;  see  accendo^  272,  3.  • 
Incesso,  ere,  ivi,  i,  — ,  278. 
In-cido ;  see  cadOj  272. 
In-cido ;  see  caedo,  272. 
In-crep6 ;  see  crepOy  258. 
In-cresc6 ;  see  cresco^  277. 
In-cumbo  ;  see  accumbo,  273. 
In-cutio  ;  see  guaiio,  270. 
Ind-igeo,  cre,ul, — ;  see^^eo,  262,N.  1. 
Ind-ipiscor ;  see  apiscor^  283. 
In-do  ;  see  abdo^  271. 
Indulged,  ere,  dulsl,  dultum,  264. 
Ineptio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
In-fero,  292,  2. 
Intit,  de/.,  297,  III. 
Ingruo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
In-notesco,  ere,  notui,  282,  N. 
In-olesco ;  see  aboUsco^  277. 
Inquam,  def,^  297,  II. 
In-sideo  ;  see  sedeo^  267,  2. 
|n-spicio,  ere,  spexl,  spcctum. 
In-sto ;  see  sto^  259. 
Intel-lego;  see  lego^  271,  2. 
Interest,  impers.^  301. 
Inter-nosco  ;  see  nosco^  278. 
In-veterascO,  ere,  ravi,  return,  281,  N. 
Irascor,  I,  — ,  283. 
Ir-ru6  ;  see  ruo^  279. 


Jacio,  ere,  jecl,  jactum,  217, 1 ;  271, 2. 

Jubeo,  ere,  jfissi,  jiissum,  265. 

Juro,  257,  JN.  2. 

Juvenesco,  ere,  — . 

Juvo,  are,  juvl,  jutum,  259,  2;  301. 


Labor,  i,  kpsus  sum,  283. 

Lacesso.  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 

Lacio,  obs.  ;  see  allicio,  p.  130,  foot- 
note 8;  217,  2. 

LacteO,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

LaedO,  ere,  laesi,  laesum,  270. 

LambO,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  M.  1. 

Langueo,  ere,  i,  — ,  267,  3. 

Largior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 

Lateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Lavo,  are,  lavi,  lautum,  lOtum,  lava- 
tum,  259.  2. 

Lego,  ere,  legi,  lectum,  271,  2. 

Lenio,  284. 

LiberO,  257. 

Libet,  iinpers.y  299. 

Liccor,  cri,  itus  sum,  268. 

Licet,  impers.y  299. 

Lino,  ere,  livi,  levl,  litum,  278. 

LinquO,  ere,  liqul,  — ,  271,  % 

LiqueO,  ere,  liqui  (licui),  267. 

Liquet,  impers.^  299. 

Liquor,  I,  — ,  283. 

Loquor,  i,  locutus  sum,  283. 

Luceo,  ere,  luxi,  — ,  265. 

Lucescit,  impers.y  300. 

Ludo,  ere,  lusi,  lusum,  270. 

LugeO,  ere,  luxi,  — ,  265. 

Luo,  ere,  lui,  — . 

M 

Macrcsc5,  ere,  macrul,  — ,  282,  N. 
MadeO,  ere,  ul,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Madesco,  ere,  maaui,  — . 
Maereo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Malo.  malle,  malui,  — ,  293. 
Mando,  ere,  I,  mansum,  272,  3. 
Maneo,  ere,  mansi,  mansum,  265. 
Maturesco,  ere,  maturui,  — ,  282,  N. 
Medeor,  eri,  — ,  208,  2. 
Memini,  def,^  297,  I. 
Mentior,  iri,  Itus  sum,  288. 
Mereor,  cri,  itus  sum,  268. 
Mergo,  ere,  mersi,  mersum,  270. 
MOtior,  iri,  mensus  sum,  288,  2. 
Meto,  ere,  messui,  messum,  275. 
MetuO,  ere,  ui,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Mico,  are,  ui,  — ,  258. 
Miniscor,  obs.  ;  see  comminiscor^  283. 
Minuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Miror,  260. 
Misceo,  ere,  miscui,  mistum,  mixtum, 

263. 
Misereor,  eri,  itus  or  tus  sura,  268,  2. 
Miseret,  impers.^  299. 
Mitesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Mitto,  ere,  misi,  missum,  270. 
MOlior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 


Mollesco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Molo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
Moneo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  207 ;  262. 
Mordeo,  ere,  momordi,  morsum,  267. 
Morior,  i  (iri),  mortuus  sum,  217,  3 ; 

283. 
Moveo,  ere,  m6vi,  motum,  266. 
Mulceo,  6re,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Mulgeo.  ere,  mulsi,  mulsum,  265. 
Multiplico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
MuniO,  284. 

N 

Nanciscor,  I,  nactus  (nanctus)  sum, 

283. 
Nascor,  I,  uatus  sum,  283. 
NecO,  p.  123,  foot-note  4. 
NectO,  ere,  ncxi,  nexui,  nexum,  270 ; 

275. 
Neg-legO,  ere,  lexi,  lectum ;  see  lego^ 

271,  2. 
Neo,  ere,  nevi,  netum,  261. 
Ne-queo,  Ire,  ivi,  itum,  296. 
Nigresco,  ere,  nigrui,  — . 
Ningo,  ere,  ninxi,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
NiteO,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Nltor,  i,  nisus,  nixus  sum,  283. 
Noceo,  262. 

Nolo  J  nolle,  nolui,  — ,  293. 
NOmmO,  257. 

Nosc6,  ere,  nOvi,  notum,  278. 
Nubo,  ere,  nupsi,  nuptum,  269. 
Nupturio,  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 

O 

Ob-do  ;  see  abdo^  271. 

Ob-dormiscO,  ere,  dormlvi,  dormitum, 

281,  N. 
Obliviscor,  i,  oblitus  sum,  283. 
Ob-mutcsc(),  ere,  miitui,  — ,  282,  N. 
Ob-sideo  ;  see  sedeo^  267,  2. 
Ob-solesco ;  see  abolescO^  277. 
Ob-sto ;  see  sto^  259. 
Ob-surdesco,  ere,  surdui,  — . 
Ob-tineo ;  see  teneo,  263. 
Oc-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Oc-cido  ;  see  caedo^  272. 
Oc-cino;  see  candj  271. 
Oc-cipio ;  see  capio^  271,  2. 
Occulo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  274. 
Odi,  def.,  297,  I. 
Of-fenio  ;  see  defendo,  272,  3. 
Of-fero,  292,  2.  ' 
Oleo,  ere.  ui,  — ,  262,  N.l. 
Olesco,  obsolete  ;  see  abolesco^  277. 
Operio,  Ire,  ui,  tum,  285. 
Oportet,  irnpers.y  299. 
Op-perior,  iri,  pertus,   peritus   sura, 

288,  2. 
Ordior,  iri,  orsus  sum,  288,  2. 


Orior,  Iri,  ortus  sum,  288,  2. 
Os-tendo ;  see  tendo^  271. 
Ovat,  def.,  297,  111. 


Paciscor,  i,  pactus  sum,  283. 
Paenitet,  impers.^  299. 
Palleo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Pando,  ere,  i,  pansum,  passum,  272,  3. 
Pango,  ere,  pepigi,  pactum,  271. 
Pango,  ere,  panxi,    pegi,   panctum, 

pactum,  271. 
Parco,  ere,  peperci  (parsi),  parsum, 

272. 
PareO,  ere,  ui,  itum,  262. 
Pario,  ere,  peperi,  partum,   217,  1 ; 

271. 
Partior,  Iri,  itus  sum,  288. 
Parturio,  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Pasco,  ere,  pavi,  pastum,  276. 
Pateo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Patior,  i,  passus  sum,  217,  3  ;  283. 
Paveo,  ere,  pavi,  — ,  266. 
Pecto,  -ere,  poxi,  pexum,  270. 
Pel-licio,  ere,  lexi,  lectum,  217,  2. 
Pello,  ere,  pepuli,  pulsum,  272. 
Pendeo,  ere,  pependi,  pensum,  267. 
Pendo,  ere,  pependi,  pensura,  272. 
Per-ago,  p.  128,  foot-note  13. 
Per-cello ;  see  excello^  273,  N. 
Per-censeo ;  see  censed^  263. 
Per-dO,  ere,  didi,  ditum ;   see  abdd^ 

271. 
Perg6   (for  per-rigo),  ere,  perrC^xi, 

perrectum  ;  see  rego^  209. 
Per-petior;  ^ee  patior ^  283. 
Per-sto  •  see  sto^  259. 
Per-taedet,  p.  143,  foot-note  8. 
Per-tineo  ;  see  teneo^  263. 
Pessum-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Peto,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  278. 
Piget,  impers.y  299. 
Pingu,  ere,  pinxi,  pictum. 
Pinso  (piso),  ere,  I,    ui,    pinsitum, 

pistum,  plnsum,  272,  3;  273. 
Placeo,  202;  301. 
Plaudo,  ere,  si,  sum,  270. 
Plecto,  ere,  plexi,  plexum,  270. 
Plector ;  see  ampledor^  283. 
Pleo,  obsolete  ;  see  compleo^  261. 
PlicO,  are,  avi,  ui,  atum,  itum,  258. 
Pluo,  ere,  I  or  pluvi,  — ,  272,  N.  1 ; 

300. 
PoUeo,  ere,  — j  262,  N.  2. 
Polliceor,  Cri,  itus  sum,  268. 
Pono,  ere,  posui,  positum,  273. 
Posco,  ere,  poposei,  — ,  272. 
Pos-sidcO ;  see  sedeO^  267,  2. 
Possum,  posse,  potui,  — ,  290,  II. 
I*otior,  iri,  itus  sum,  288. 


388 


INDEX  OF   VERBS. 


INDEX  OF  VERBS, 


389 


Poto,  are,  avi,  atura,  um,  257,  N.  1. 
Prac-cino  ;  see  caud^  271. 
Prae-curro  ;  see  curro^  272. 
Prae-sideo ;  see  stdeo^  267,  2. 
Prae-sto  ;  see  sto^  25U;  301. 
Prae-sum,  290,  I. 
Prae-vertor ;  sec  verto^  272,  3. 
Prandeo,  ere,  i,  pransum,  267,  3. 
PrehendO,  ere,  i,  hensum,  272,  3. 
Premo,  ere,  press!,  pressum,  270. 
Prendo,  p.  130,  foot-note  1. 
Pr0d-ig6  ;  see  aao^  271. 
Pro- do;  see  abao^  271. 
Proficiscor,  I,  proiectus  sum,  283. 
Pro-iiteor  ;  scafateor,  268,  2. 
Promo,  ere,  prompsi,  promptum. 
Pro-sum,  prodesse,   profui,  — ,  290, 

HI. 
PrO-tcndo  ;  see  tendo^  271. 
Psallo,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Pudet,  iwyy^rs.,  299. 
Puerasco,  ere,  — ,  282. 
Pugno,  257.  .  , 

Pungo,  ere,  pupugl,  punctum,  271. 

Punio,  284. 

Q 

Quaero,  ere,  quaeslv!,  quaesltum,  278. 

Quaeso,  dff/".,  297,  111. 

Quatio,  ere,  quassi,  quassura,  217,  1 ; 

270. 
Queo,  Ire,  !vl,  itum,  296. 
Queror,  I,  qucstus  sum,  283. 
Quicsco,  ere,  quievi,  quietum,  277. 

R 

Rado,  ere,  rSsi,  rasum,  270. 
Rapio,  ere,  rapul,  raptum,  217, 1 ;  274. 
Raucio,  ire,  rausi,  rausum,  287. 
Ke-censeo ;  see  cmseO^  263. 
Re-cido  ;  see  cado^  272. 
Re-cido  ;  see  caedO^  272. 
Re-crudesco,  ere,  crudul,  282,  N. 
Red-arguo  ;  see  arguo^  279. 
Ked-do ;  see  abdO,  271 . 
Re-fello;  see /alio,  272. 
Re-ferO ;  see/ero,  292. 
Refert,  imptrs.^  301. 
Rego,  ere,  rfexi,  rectum,  209 ;  269. 
Re-linquo  ;  see  linquo^  271,  2. 
Rc-miniscor,  i,  — ,  283. 
Rcnldeo,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 
Reor,  reri,  ratus  sum,  268,  2. 
Re-pango;  BeepangO^  271. 
Re-parco  ;  see  pared,  272. 
Re-perio,  Ire,  peri,  pertum,  287,  r^. 
Re-plico,  p.  123,  foot-note  6. 
Re-sideo ;  see  sedeo,  267,  2. 
Re-sipeo  ;  see  sapid,  278. 


Re-sono ;  see  sono,  258. 
Re-spergo  ;  see  spargo,  270. 
Re-spondeo,  255,  I.,  4. 
Re-tendo  ;  see  tendo,  271. 
Re-tineo  ;  see  iened,  263. 
Re-vertor;  see  vtrtO,  272,  3. 
Re-vivisco,  ere,  vixi,  victura,  281,  N. 
Rideo,  ere,  risl,  risum,  265. 
Ringor,  i,  rictus  sum,  283. 
Rocu),  ere,  rosi,  rosum,  270. 
Rorat,  impers.,  300. 
Rubeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Rudo,  ere,  ivi,  itum,  27S. 
Rumpo,  ere,  rupi,  ruptum,  271,  2. 
Ruo,  ere,  rui,  rutum,  ruitCirus,  279. 


S 

Saepio,  Ire,  psi,  ptum,  286. 

Sagio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 

Salio,  Ire,  ui  (il),  turn,  285. 

Salve, (/</•.,  297,  III. 

Saiicio,  ire,  sanxi,  sancitum,  sanctum, 

286. 
Sapio,  ere,  IvI,  ul,  — ,  217,  1 ;  278. 
Sarcio,  ire,  sarsi,  sartum,  286. 
Sat-ago  ;  see  ago,  271,  2. 
Satis-do,  259,  N.  1. 
Satis-facio,  p.  129,  foot-note  1. 
Scabo,  ere,  scab!,  — ,  271,  2. 
Scando,  ere,  di,  scansum,  272,  3. 
Scindo,  ere,  scidi,  scissum,  272,  3. 
Scio,  284. 

Scisco,  ere,  scivi,  scitum,  281,  Is. 
Seco,  are,  ui,  turn,  258. 
Sedeo,  ere,  sedi,  sessum,  267. 
Se-ligo  ;  see  lego,  271,  2. 
Sentio,  ire,  sens!,  sOnsum,  287. 
Sepelio,  ire,  ivi,  sepultum,  284. 
Sequor,  i,  secutus  t>um,  283. 
Sero,  ere,  sevi,  satum,  277,  N. 
Sero,  ere,  serui,  sertum,  274. 

Sido,  ere,  I,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 

Sileo,  ere,  ui,  — j  262,  N.  1. 

Sino,  ere,  sivi,  situm,  278. 

Sisto,  ere,  stiti,  statum,  271. 

Sitk),  ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 

SoleO,  ere,  solitus  sura,  268,  3. 

Solvo,  ere,  solvi,  solutum,  272,  3. 

Sono,  are,  ui,  itum,  258. 

Sorbeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Sortior,  iri,  Itus  sura,  288. 

Sparse),  ere,  sparsi,  sparsum,  270. 

Speck),  obs.,  217,  2. 

Spemo,  ere,  sprevi,  spretum,  2i7. 

Spero,  257. 

Splendeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Spondeo,   fere,    spopondi,    spOnsum, 
267. 


y\\ 


Statuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
Sterno,  ere,  stravi,  stratum,  276. 
Sternuo,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Sterto,  ere,  ui,  — ,  273,  N. 
Stinguo,  ere,  — ,^p.  127,  foot-note  3. 
Sto,  are,  stetT,  statum,  259. 
Strepo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 
StrideO,  ere,  stridi,  — ,  267,  3. 
Stride,  ere,  i,  — ,  272,  N.  1. 
Struo,  ere,  struxi,  structum,  279,  N. 
Studeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Stupeo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  266. 
Suadeo,  ere,  si,  sum,  265. 
Sub-do,  ere,  didi,  ditum:   see  abdo, 

271. 
Sub-ig5  ;  sec  ago.  271,  2. 
Sub-si lio  ;  see  mlio,  285. 
Suc-cedo  ;  see  cedo,  270. 
Suc-cendo  ;  see  accendo,  272,  3. 
Suc-censeo  ;  see  cmsed,  263. 
Suc-cido ;  see  cado,  272. 
Suc-cido  ;  see  caedo,  272. 
Suc-cresco ;  see  cresco,  277. 
Suesco,  ere,  suevi,  suetum,  277. 
Suf-fero,  292,  2. 
Suf-ficio;  see  facia,  271,  2. 
Suf-fodio ;  seefodio,  272,  2. 
Sug-gero  ;  see  gero,  269. 
Sum,  esse,  ful,  — ,  203,  1 ;  204. 
Sumo,  ere,  psi,  ptum,  269. 
Superbio,  ire,  — ,  284,  N.  2. 
Super-jaciO,  p.  129,  foot-note  2. 
Supplico,  258,  foot-note. 
Sup-pono ;  sec  pond,  273. 
Surgo   {for    sur-rigo),    ere,   surrGxi, 

surrectum  ;  see  rego,  269. 


Taceo,  262. 

Taedet,  impers.,  299. 

Tango,  ere,  tetigl,  tactum,  271. 

Temno,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Tendo,  ere,  tetendl,  tentum,  tCnsum, 

271. 
Teneo,  ere,  ui,  tum,  263. 
Tepesco,  ere,  tepul,  — ,  281. 
Tergeo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  265;  p. 

128,  foot-note  3. 
Tergo,  ere,  tersi,  tersum,  270. 
Tero,  ere,  trivl,  tritura,  278. 
Texo,  ere,  ul,  tum,  274. 
Timeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
ToUO,  ere,  sustull,  sublatum,  271. 


Tondeo,  ere,  totondl,  tonsum,  267. 
Tono,  are,  ul  (itum),  258 ;  300. 
Torpeo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 
Torqueo,  ere,  torsi,  tortum,  264. 
Torreo,  ere,  torrul,  tostum,  263. 
Tra-do  ;  see  ahdo,  271. 
Traho,  ere,  traxi,  tractum,  269. 
Tremo,  ere,  ul,  — ,  273,  N. 
Tribuo,  ere,  ui,  utum,  279. 
TrudO,  ere,  trusi,  trusum,  270. 
Tueor,  eri,  tuitus,  tutus  sum,  268. 

Tundo,  ere,  tutudi,  tunsum,  tusum, 

070 

Turgeo,  ere,  tursi  {rare),  — ,  265. 
Tussio,  ire,  284,  N.  2. 

U 

Ulciscor,  I,  ultus  sum,  283. 
Urgeo,  ere,  ursi,  — ,  265. 
Uro,  ere,  ussi,  ustum,  269, 
tJtor,  I,  usus  sum,  283. 

V 

Vad(3,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Vagio,  Ire,  ivi,  — ,  284. 

Veho,  ere,  vexl,  vectum,  269. 

Velio,  ere,  veil!  (vulsl),  vulsum,  272, 3. 

Vendo,  ere,  didi,  ditum,  271. 

Ven-eo,  295,  3. 

VeniO,  Ire,  vGnl,  vcntum,  287,  N. 

Venum-do,  259,  N.  1. 

Vereor,  eri,  veritus  sum,  268. 

Vergo,  ere,  — ,  272,  N.  2. 

Verro,  ere,  verri,  versum,  272,  3. 

Verto,  ere,  tl,  sum,  272,  3. 

Vertor ;  see  verto,  272,  3. 

Vescor,  I,  — ,  283. 

Veterasco,  ere,  ravl,  — ,  276. 

Veto,  are,  ul,  itum,  258. 

Video,  ere,  vidl,  visum,  267,  2. 

Vllesco,  ere,  vllul,  — ,  282,  N. 

Vincio,  Ire,  vinxl,  vinctum,  286. 

Vinco,  ere,  vici,  victum,  271,  2. 

Vireo,  ere,  ui,  — ,  262,  N.  1. 

Viresco,  ere,  virul. — ,  281. 

Viso,  ere,  i,  um,  272,  3. 

Vivo,  ere,  vixl,  victura,  269. 

Voco,  257. 

Volo,  velle,  volul,  — ,  293. 

Volvo,  ere,  volvi,  voltitum,  272,  3. 

Vomo,  ere,  ui,  itum,  273. 

Voveo,  ere,  vovl,  votum,  266. 


Squalen,  ere,  — ,  262,  N.  2. 


m 


390 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


391 


li^DEX    OF    SUBJECTS. 


A 

A,  a,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  A  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2.  -^  innom.,  accus.,  and 
voc.  pi.,  4G,  2,  1).  ^-nouns,  l)ecl. 
l.,48;  a-verbs,  205.  Nouns  in  -a, 
Decl.  111.,  69;  quant,  of  increm., 
585, 1.,  3  ;  gender,  111.  -A,  adverbs 
in,  304,  1.,  3.  -^,  prepositions  in,  p. 
145,  foot-note  11 ,  p.  149,  foot-note 
2;  adverbs  in,  304,  II.,  2.  -A,  -a, 
suffix,  320.  -J,  derivatives  in,  326, 
2.  A.  changed  in  conipds.,  344,  4, 
N.  1.  A  or  a,  final,  580,  I. ;  580, 
11I.,N.  2;  581,  III.;  in  increm.  of 
_decl.,585;  585, 1. ;  conj.,586;  586, 1. 

A^  ab,  abs^  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in 
compds.,  w.  dat.,  386,  2;  w.  abl., 
434,  N.  1.  Ab,  as  adverb,  379,  2, 
N.  JT,  ab,  abs,  with  abl.,  434  ;_434, 
I. ;  of  agent,  388,  2 ;  415, 1.  A,  ab, 
abs,  434.  N.  2.  I.  ab,  abs,  desig- 
nating abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ay  ab,  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Abbreviations,  649,  1 ;  650. 

Abhific,  denoting  interval,  p.  230, 
foot-note  2 ;  430,  N.  3. 

Abies,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

-abiiis,  a  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

Arlative,  sing.,  original  ending  of, 
p.  20,  foot-note  5.  Abl.  sing,  m 
bed.  111.,  62,  II.  ff.  ;  63,2;  64,  N. 
3  ;  in  adjs.,  154,  notes  1  and  2 ;  157, 
N.     Abl.   plur.,   Decl.   I.,  40,  4; 

^     Decl.  III.,  68,  5 ;  Decl.  IV.,  117. 

Ablative,  translation  of,  48,  w.  loot- 
note  4.  Relations  denoted,  367. 
Svntax,.411  ff.  Abl.  w.  locat.,  363, 
4;  2);  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  3;  400,3; 


Note.— The  numbers  refer  to  articles,  not  to  pages.  Ace.  or  accus,  =  accusative; 
arf;«.  =  adjectives;  cowj?.  =  composition ;  com^cZs.  =  compounds;  conj.  =  conjugation ; 
conjunc.  =  conjunctions ;  constr.  =  construction ;  ff.  =  and  the  following ;  gen.  or  genit. 
=  genitive;  gend.  =  gender;  ger.  =  gerund;  loc.  or  locat.  =  locative;  preps.  =  prepo- 
sitions ;  w.  =  with. 

It  has  not  been  thought  advisable  to  overload  this  index  with  such  separate  words  as 
may  be  readily  referred  to  classes,  or  to  general  rules,  or  even  with  such  exceptions  as 
may  be  readily  found  under  their  respective  heads.  Accordingly,  the  numerous  excep- 
tions in  Dec.  III.  are  not  inserted,  as  they  may  be  best  found  under  the  respective  end- 
ings, 69-115. 

TV.  rPfert,  408,  I.,  2;  w.  verbs  of 
accusing,  etc.,  410,  II.,  3;  w.  verbs 
of  condemning,  410,  III.  Abl.  of 
place,  412;  425  ff ,  ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ff.     Abl.  w.  com- 

§arat.,417.  Instrumental  abl.,  418 
'.  Abl.  of  accompaniment,  41^  ; 
means,  420.  Abl.  in  special  con- 
structions, 421.  Abl.  of  price,  422 ; 
difference,  423;  Bpecification^  424. 
Locative  abl.,  425  ff.  Abl.  ot  time, 
429.  Abl.  abs.,431.  Abl.  w.  preps., 
432;  434;  435;  w.  compds.,  434, 
N.  1;  w.  adverbs,  437.  Infin.  in 
abl.  abs.,  439,  IV. 

Ablative  sing,  in  «,  581,  III.,  1. 

-a,bruni,  a  in,  587,  I.,  1. 

Abs,  in  compds.,  344,  5.  Abs  w.  abl., 
434;  434,  N.  2. 

Absente.,  constr.,  438,  6,  N. 

Absolute  Abl.,  431. 

AbsolvO,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Absque,  w.  abl.,  434. 

Abstinedy  constr.,  p.  211,  foot-note  5. 

Abstract  nouns,  39,  2,  2);  plur.,  130, 
2  and  3.  A bstract  nouns  from  adjs. , 
325. 

Absum,  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Abest,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Abunde,  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

-3;bundiis,  a  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

-3.bus  lor  -i.<?,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4. 

Ac,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  meaning  as,  451, 
5;  than,  459,  2;  554^  I.,  2,  N.  Ac 
SI,  311,  2;  w.  subj.  m  conditions, 
513.  II. 

Acatalectic,  603,  N.  3. 

Accent,  rhythmic,  599. 

Accentuation,  17  ff. 


Accidity  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Accingo,  constr.,  377. 

Accommoddtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot- 
note 1. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  418  ff. 

Accusative,  formation  of,  Decl.  II., 
51,2,6);  Decl.  III.,  58,  1,  5);  62, 
II.  ft'. ;  63,  1;  64,  N.  2;  67,  N.  2; 
68,  2  and  6;  in  adjs.,  154,  N.  1; 
158, 1. 

Accusative,  svntax  of,  370  ff.  Direct 
object,  371  ff. ;  cognate,  371,  I.  and 
II.  •  ace.  of  effect,  371,  I.,  2,  2) ;  w. 
verbal  adjs.  and  nouns,  371,  I.,  N. ; 
w.  compds.,  372.  Two  aces.,  373 
ff.  Predicate  ace,  373,  1.  Poetic 
ace,  377.  Adverbial  ace,  378  ff'. 
Ace.  of  specification,  378  ;  of  time 
and  space,  379  ;  of  limit,  380  ;  poet- 
ical dat.  for,  380,  4.  Ace.  in  exclam., 
381.  Ace.  for  gen.,  407.  Ace.  w. 
r'efert  and  interest,  408,  I.,  3 ;  w. 
preps.,  432;  433;  435;  w.  adverbs, 
437  ;  as  object,  w.  infin.,  534.  Ace. 
as  subj.  of  mfin.,  536.  Ace.  of  ger., 
542,  III. 

Accusative,  Greek,  in  -of^,  581,  V.,  2. 
Ace.  plur.  in  -its,  581,  I  A,,  2. 

Accusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
II.  ;  410,  II. 

Acer,  decl.,  153. 

-a<^eus,  adjs.  in,  329;  a  in,  587,  III.,1. 

Acus,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Acquitting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409,  II. 

-S/Crum,  a  in,  587j  I.,  1. 

Action,  repeated,  in  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  2,  2);  518.1. 

Active  voice,  195.  Active  and  passive 
constr.,  464. 

-Sicundus,  a  in,  587,  HI.,  2. 

Acus,  decl.,  117, 1 ;  gend.,  118. 

Ad  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  two  aces.,  376;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Ad  w.  ace,  433 ;  433,  I.  ;  after 
adjs.,  391,  II.,  1 ;  w.  refert  and  in- 
terest,  408,  I.,  3.  Ad  designating 
abode,  446,  N.  4.  Ad  w.  ger.,  p. 
315,  foot-note  5  ;  denoting  purpose, 
542,  III.,  N.  2. 

Adeo,  661,  N.  2;  554,  I.,  4. 

-odSs,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 

Adfatim  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3 ; 

Suant.  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Jicio  w.  abl.,  420,  2. 
Adfinis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3  ; 

p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Aaiviscor  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 
Adjaceo  w.  ace  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 
Adjective,  146 ;  decl.  of,  147  ff. ;  ir- 


regular, 151;  159.  Compar.,  160 
ff.  Numerals,  172  ff. ;  decl.  of,  175 
ff.  Demon.,  186,  4.  Rel.,  187,  4. 
Inter.,  188,  4.  Derivation,  328  ff. 
Composition,  342.  W.  dat.,  391; 
400,  1;  w.  gen.,  397,  3;  399:  of 
gerund,  p.  315,  foot-note  2.  Adj. 
for  c:en.,  395,  N.  2.  Adj.  w.  abl., 
400,  3;  414,  III.:  416;  420;  421. 
Agreement,  438  ff.  Use,  440.  W. 
force  of  substantives,  441 ;  of  clauses, 
442  ;  of  adverbs,  443.  Compar., 
use,  444.  Adj.  separated  from 
noun,  565,  3  and  4.  Position  of 
modifiers  of  adj.,  566;  of  adj.  w. 
gen.,  565,  2. 

Admisceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3;  p.  201, 
foot-note  1. 

Admodum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Ad'-.noneo,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Admonishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of, 
409,  I. ;  410,  I. 

Adolescens,  compar.,  168,  4. 

Adonic  verse,  628,  I. 

Adopted  son,  how  named,  649,  3. 

Ador,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1.    " 

Adulor  w.  ace  or  dat.,  p.  202,  loot- 
note  1. 

Adulter,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Adverbial  ace,  378.  Adverbial  com- 
parison, 170. 

Adveubs,  303  ff.  Numeral  adverbs, 
181.  Compar.,  306.  Adverbs  w. 
nouns,  359,  N.  4;  443,  N.  4;  w. 
dat.,  392 ;  w.  gen..  397, 4.  Adverbs 
as  preps.,  437.  Adverbs  for  adjs., 
443,  N.  3.  Use  of  adverbs,  551  ft*. 
Position  of  modifiers  of  adverb,  568. 
Adverb  between  prep,  and  case,  569, 
II.,  3.  -£.  in  adverbs,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Adverb  redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Adversative  conjuncs.,  310,  3  ;  554, 
III.  Advers.  asyndeton,  p.  370, 
foot-note  1. 

Adversum,  adverstc8,vr,  ace,  433. 

Ae,  sound,  6;  12;  changed  to  i,  344, 

4,  N.  2. 
AedeSy  sing,  and  plur.,  132. 
Aeger^  decl.,  150. 

Aegre/ero,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 
Aeneas,  decl.,  50. 

Aequdlis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Aequl  facere,  401,  N.  4. 
A'er.,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  HI.,  4. 
Aetds,  decl.,  58. 

Aether,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  HI.,  4. 
-a/Cus,  adjs.  in.,  331. 
Age,  ex-pression  of,  p.  222,  foot-note  4. 

Ages  of  Lat.  literature,  640. 


392 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Age^  intcrj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 
Agent,  abl.  of,  with  a  or  ab.  388,  2; 

415,  I.     Dat.  of,  388. 
Ager^  clecl.,  51. 

-a^inta,  quant,   of  antepen.,  587, 

_  ill.,  t>. 

Agnomen,  649,  2  and  3. 

Agnomination,  637,  XI.,  7. 

Ago  nt,  498,  II.,  N.  2 ;  id  ago  w.  subj., 

_p.  J74,  ibot-notc  2. 
-ago,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  327,  4,  N. ; 

a  in,  587,  I.,  2. 
Agreeable,  chit.   w.  adjs.   signifying, 

Ot/i.,   L. 

Agreement,  of  Nouns,  362  IF.  Pred. 
noun,  362;  in  gend.,  362,  1.  Ap- 
positive,  363;  in  gend.,  363,  1.  Of 
adject.,  438  ff. ;  w.  clause,  438,  3; 
synesis,  438,  6;  w.  one  noun  for 
another,  438,  7;  w.  two  or  more 
nouns,  439;  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3, 
K.  1.  Of  pronouns,  445;  w.  two 
or  more  antecedents,  445,  3  ;  attrac- 
tion, 445,  4;  synesis,  445,  5;  w. 
clause,  445,  7.  Of  verbs,  460  ff.  ; 
synesis,  461  ;  w.  appos.  or  pred. 
noun,  462 ;  w.  compd.  subject,  463. 

Ah^  ahd^  312. 

-ai  for  -ae,  49,  2;  a  in,  577,  I.,  1,  (1). 

AiO  for  agio.  p.  19,  foot-note  8 :  posi- 
tion, 569,  V. 

-Sis  in  prop,  names,  a  in,  577,  5,  N. ; 
587,  I.,  3. 

-SI  final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).  Nouns 
m-al.  63;  65,2;  quant,  of increm., 
585,  I.,  1.  -Al  in  Plautus  for  -aL 
580,  III.,  N.  2. 

Alacer,  dccl.,  153,  N.  1  ;  supcrlat. 
wanting,  168,  3. 

Albus^  without  compar.,  169,  4. 

Alcaic  verse,  604,  N.   1 ;  028,  VIII. 

and  IX.;    619,  1.     Alcaic  stanza, 

631,  I.  ' 

Alcmanian  stanza,  631,  XIX. ;  631, 
IX.  »        »  ,         , 

2lec^  dlex^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III., 

o. 

-alia,  names  of  festivals  in,  136,  3. 

Alicuol,  alicunde,  305. 

Aliemis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-noto  1 ; 

w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 
Aliqud^  aliqiiavfi^  aliqiiandO^  305. 
Aliquantus^  191. 
Aliqul^  use,  455,  1. 
Aliquis,  190,  2 ;  191 ;  use  of,  455. 
Aliqno^  305,  II. 
Aliquot^  191. 

Aliquotiens^  aliqudvoi'sum^  305. 
-aUs,  adjs.  in,  330  ;  compar.,  168,  2 ; 

169,3.     Am-dlis,  587,  1.,  4. 


Aliud,  nihil  aliud  nisij  nihil  aliud 

quaTTi.  555,  III.,  1. 
Alius,  clecl.,  151;  w.  abl.,  417,  1,  N. 
4.    Use  of  a^/w-?,  459.    Alius — alium 
w.  pi.  verb,  461,  3. 
Allegory,  637,  II.,  1. 
Alliteration,  637,  XL,  1. 
Allobrox^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Alphabet,   2  ff.    Letters  of,  indecl., 

128,  1. 
Alter^  dccl.,  151.     Alter  for  secundus, 
p.  66,  foot-note  4.    Use  of  altt7*^  459. 
Alter— alterum^  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  3. 
Alteruter^  dccl.,  151,  N.  2. 
Alvus^  gend.,  53,  1. 
-am  in  adverbs,  304,  I.,  3,  2). 
Amdns,  decl.,  157. 
Ambo,   amb,   insep.    prep.,    308;    in 

compds.,  344,  6. 
Ambo,  decl.,  175,  N.  2. 
Amicus  w.  dat.,  p.   205,  foot-note  1. 

/in  amicus,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
AmniSj  decl.,  62j  IV. 
Amphiar aides,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
Amphora,  648,  III. 
Amplius,  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 
Amyclides,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 
An,  310,  2,  N.;  311,  8;  353.     An  = 
'whether  not,'  529.  II.,  3,  N.   2; 
=  aut,  529,  II.,  3,  N.  3.     A  in  an. 
579,  3. 
-an,  suffix,  320,  I. 
-ana,  d  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
Anacoluthon,  636,  IV.,  6. 
Anacrusis,  618,  N.  3. 
Analysis  of  verbal  endings,  241  ff. 
Anapaest,  597,  N.  1 ;  cyclic,  598, 1,  4}. 
Anaphora,  636,  III.,  3. 
Anas,  as  in,  581,  V.,  1 ;  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  I.,  4,  (2). 
Anastrophe,  636,  v.,  1. 
Ancient  fonus  of  jjronouns,  184,  5 ;  of 

verbs,  240. 
Ancile,  decl.,  136,  3. 
AndrogeOs,  decl.,  54. 
-aneus,  a  in,  587,  III.,  1. 
Anguis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
Anhelitvs.  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Animal,  aecl.,  63. 

Animl,  constr.,  399,  III.,  1  ;  410,  V.,  2. 
Anio,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  2. 
Annan,  310,  2,  N. ;  353,  2,  N.  3. 
Answers,  352. 
-ant,  suffix,  320,  I. 
Ante  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.     Ante    w.  ace,  433; 
433,    I.  ;     denoting    interval,    430. 
Ante  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 
^Ti^m,  304,1V.,  N.  2. 
Antecedent,  445,  N. ;  omitted,  445,  6. 


f 

\ 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


393 


Clause  as  autcccd.,  445,  7.     Ante- 

ced.  attracted.  445,  9. 
Antecedo  w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot- 
note 1. 
Ante-classical  period,  640,  I. 
Anteeo  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.  1 ; 

w.  ace.  or  dat.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Antehdc,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 
Antequam,  311,  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 

520. 
Anticipation,  prolepsis,  440,  2;  636, 

IV.,  3. 
Antlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 
Antimeria,  636,  IV.,  1. 
-anus,  adjs.  in,  330  ;  ZZ\\  a  in,  587, 

I.,  5. 
Anxiety,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  III. 
-aon  in  prop,  names,  a  in,  577,  5,  N. 
Apage,  interj.,  312,  4. 
Aphaeresis,  635,  1. 
Apis^  genit.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 
Apocope,  635,  3. 
Apophasis,  637,  XL,  2. 
Aposiopesis,  636,  I.,  3;  637,  XL,  3. 
Apostrophe,  637,  X. 
Apparent  agent,  388. 
Appendix  with  short  increm.,  p.  343, 

foot-note  2. 
Appendix,  634  ff. 
Apposition,   partitive,   364.      Clauses 

\i\  apposition,  501,  111. 
Appositional  genitive,  396,  VI. 
Appositive,  359,  N.  2 ;  agreement  of, 

363  •  in  gend.,  363,  1  ;  force  of,  363, 

3.    Infin.  as  appos.,  539,  II. 
Apricus,  i  in,  p,  345,  foot-note  4. 
Apt  us    w.  dat.,  p.   205,  foot-note   1. 

Aptus  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  11.,  2. 
Aj)ud  w.  ace,  433 ;  433, 1. ;  designat- 
ing abode,  446,  N.  4. 
-ar'final  shortened,  21,  2,  2).     Nouns 

in  «r,  63  ;  65,  2  ;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  L,  1.     Gend._of  nouns  in  ar, 

dr,  111;   112.     -Ar  in  Plautus  for 

-ar,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Arar,  Araris,  decl.,  62,  HI.,  1. 
Arbor,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 
Arced  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Archilochian  verse,  604,  N.  1;   628, 

X.;   616,   N.  •   617,   N.  :   619,   N. ; 

stanza,   631,   XL    and    All. ;    631, 

XIV.  and  XV. 
Arcus,  decl.,  117,  1. 
Ar'euae,  locat.,  426,  2,  N. 
Aries,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 
-aris,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 

A  in  -dris,  587,  L,  6. 
Aristophanic  verse,  628,  II. 
-arium,  nouns  in,  323;  a  in,  587, 

IlL,  1. 


-arius,  nouns  in,  324 ;  adjs.  in,  330 ; 
d  in,  587,  III.,  1. 

Arrangement  of  Words  ani> 
.  Clauses,  559  ff. ;  words,  560  ff. ; 
gen.  rules,  560  ff. ;  effect  of  empha- 
sis and  euphony,  561 ;  chiasmus, 
562 ;  kindred  words,  563  ;  words  w. 
com.  relation^  564 ;  special  rules, 
565  ff. ;  modifiers  of  nouns,  565 ; 
adjs.,  566  ;  verbs,  567  ;  adverbs,  568 ; 
special  words,  569;  demon.,  669. 
1. ;  preps.,  569,  II. ;  conjuncs.  and 
relat.,  569,  III.  ;  non,  569,  IV.; 
inquam,  did,  569,  V. ;  voc.  569, 
VI. ;  clauses,  570  ff. ;  as  subj.  or 
pred.,  571;  subord.  elements, '572; 
periods,  573. 

Arsis,  600. 

Article,  48,  6. 

Artus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1. 

-arus,  a  in,  587,  I.,  6. 

Arx,  decl.,  64. 

Aryan  languages,  638. 

-as  in  genit., "Decl.  I.,  49,  1.  Nouns 
in  -as,  Decl.  I.,  50;  Decl.  III.,  64, 
2,  3) ;  decl.,  79.  Qender  of  nouns 
in  -as,  -as,  105,  106.  -As  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  L,  3,  2).  -As,  suffix, 
320, 1.  -As,  adjs.  in,  331.  Quant, 
of  -as,  -as,  580,' III. ;  581,  V.  'dm 
voc.  of  nouns  in,  581,  III.,  2.  Quant. 
_of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -«6*,  585,  L,  3. 

As,  646 ;  648,  I. 

Asclepiadean  verse,  628,  IV.  and  V. ; 
631,  IV.-VIII. 

Asking,  construction  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Asper,  decl.,  150,  N. 

Aspergo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Aspirate,  3,  11.,  3. 

-assim  in  perf.  subj.,  240,  4. 

Assimilation  of  vowels,  25;  of  con- 
sonants, 33 ;  34. 

Assimilis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Assis^  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

-asso  in  fat.  perf.,  240,  4. 

Asyndeton,  636,  L,  1. 

At,  310,  3;  554,  111.,  2. 

-at,  neut.  stems  in,  58,  2.  -At  in 
Plautus  for  -at,  580,  111.,  N.  2. 

Atat,  interj. J  312,  1. 

-aticus,  d  in,  587,  III.,  2. 

-atilis,  quant,  of  pen.,  587,  11. ,  5  ; 
antepen.,  587,  111.,  2. 

-atim,  a  in,  587,  L,  7. 

Atque^  310,  1 ;  554,  1. ;  meaning  as, 
451,  5;  than,  459,  2;  554,  L,  2,  N. 
Que — atque,  554,  I.  5. 

Atqui,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2. 

-airum,  d  in,  587,  L,  1. 


394 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Attamen^  554,  III.,  3. 

Attraction,  636,  IV.,  5  ;  of  pron.,445, 

4  and  8 ;  of  anteced.,  445,  9. 
Attributive  adj.,  438,  2. 
-a,tus,  nouns  in,  324 ;  a  in,  687, 1.,  7. 
All.,  interi.,  312,  3. 
Au,  sound,  6 ;  12 ;  changed  in  corapds., 

344,  4,  N.  3. 
Auddx^  decl.,  156. 
Audiens  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 
Audio  w.  pred.  noun,  362,  2,  N.  1; 

w.  infin.,  535,  I.,  1. 
Aureus,  646. 

A  iisim  for  auscrim..,  240,  4. 
Ant,  310,  2:  554,  II.,  2.     Avt—aut, 

554,   II.,   ^.     Position   of   aut    in 

poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 
Autem,  310,  3;    554,  III.,   2  and  4; 

position,  569,  III. 
Authors,  Latin,  640. 
Autonomasia,  637,  III.,  1. 
Auxiliu7n^  auxilia,  132. 
Aversion,  g^n.  w.  adjs.  of.  399,  I.,  1. 
Avidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  root-note  3; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2;  other  constrs., 

400. 
Avis,  dec!.,  62,  IV. 
-avus,  a  in,  587..  I.,  6. 
-ax,  gen.  of  nouns  in,  91 ;  verbals  hi, 

333;   w.  ger.,  399j  II.     Quant,  of 

increm.  of  words  in  hix,  585,  1.,  4, 

(3). 
Axd  for  egero,  240,  4. 

B 

B,  sound,  7,  N. ;  changed  to  o,  33,  1 ; 

to  m,  33,  3,  N. ;  34,  3.     Quant,  of 

monosyl.  in,  579,  2. 
JBaccar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4, 

(1  )• 
Bacchius,  507,  N.  1. 

Becominj]r  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 
N.  1,  f). 

Beginninf^,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1., 
1 .  Beginning  of  sentence  emphatic, 
561,  I. 

Being,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390,  N. 
1,  1).  Being  able,  wont,  accus- 
tomed, constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  2. 

B'elldes,  I  in,  p.  345.  foot-note  3. 

Believing,  verbs  or,  w.  dat.,  385,  II. 
Infin.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I.,  1,  (2). 

Bellum,  decl.,  51,  8.  Belli,  locat.,  51, 
8 ;  426,  2. 

Belonging  to,  gen.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

Bene,  compar.,  306,  2 ;  compds.  w. 
dat.,  384,  4,  N.  1.  E  final  in  bene, 
581,  IV.,  4. 


Benefiting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  I. 
-ber,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ;  names  of 

montns  in,  65,  1,  1). 
Bibl,  i  in,  590,  1. 
Bills,  decl.,  62,  IV. 
-bills,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ;  verbals  in, 

333 ;  w.  dat.,  391, 1. ;  compar.,  168, 1. 

Quant,  of  pen.  of  -oil is ^  587,  II.,  5. 
Bis,  i  hi,  579,  3. 
Bonifacere,cdnsule7'e,  401,  N.  4. 
Bonus,  decl.,  148,  compar.,  165. 
Bi'^s,  decl.,  66;  quant,  of  increm.,  581, 

11.,  o. 

Brachylogy,  636,  II. 

Brazen  age,  640,  III.,  1. 

-brum,  nouns  in,  327. 

-bs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  86. 

Buhae,  intcrj.,  312,  1. 

Bucolic  diaeresis,  611,  2 ;  bucol.  caesu- 
ra, p.  356,  foot-note  5. 

-buluxn,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  327. 

-bundus.  verbals  in,  333. 

Biiris,  decl.,  62,  II.  ^ 

Buying,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  40d. 


C  in  place  of  G,  2, 1  and  3.  Sound  of 
c,  7 ;  13.  C  changed  to  ^,  33,  2 ; 
dropped,  86,  3.  Js^ouns  in  c,  74. 
Genu.,  111.  Quant,  of  final  syllables 
in  c,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  1. 

-ca,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Catcns,  superl.  wanting,  168,  3. 

Caelum,  plur.,  143,  1.  ^ 

Caesura,  caesural  pause,  602. 

Calcar,  decl.,  63. 

Calendar,  Koman,  641  ff. 

Calends,  642,  I.,  1. 

CaUx,  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Calling,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373. 

Campester,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Cams,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

Capitis  w.  verbs,  410,  III.,  N.  2. 

Cappadox,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II., 
3. 

Capso  for  c'epero,  240,  4. 

Caput,  decl.,  58. 

Carbasus,  gend.,  53,  1 ;  plur.,  142. 

Career,  careered,  132. 

Cardinals  172;  174;  decl.,  175  If. 

Carmen,  decl.,  60. 

Carb,  decl..  64,  N.  1. 

Cams  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Cases,  Etymology  of,  45  fif.  Cases 
alike,  U,  2.  Case  suffixes,  46,  1 ; 
in  Decl.  III.,  57;  67.      Case  end- 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


395 


ings,  47,  N.  3 ;  in  Decl.  I.,  48 ;  Decl. 
II.,  51,  2,  3);  Decl.  III.,  67;  for  i- 
stems,  62,  I.,  2;  Decl.  IV.,  116 
Decl.  v.,  120;  pronouns,  184,  1 
Irregular  case  endings,  Decl.  I.,  49 
Decl.  II.,  52;  Dect.  III.,  67,  N. 
Decl.  IV.,  117;  Decl.  V.,  121. 

Cases,  Syntax  of,  362  if.  General 
view,  365.  Nominat.,  368.  Vocat., 
369.  Accusat.,  370  If.  Dat.,  382  ff. 
Gen.,  393  ^.  Abl.,  411  flf.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  If. 

Castrum,  castra,  132. 

Catalectic,  603,  notes  3  and  5. 

Causa,  p.  221.  foot-note  2. 

Causal  adverbs,  305,  N.  2,  4);  con- 
junctions, 310,  5;  311,  7;  554,  V. ; 
655,  VII.  Causal  clauses,  516  ;  517 ; 
w.  guod^  etc.,  516 ;  w.  cum  and  qui, 
517. 

Cause,  gen.  of,  399,  III.,  2 ;  abl.,  413 ; 
416.  Cause  expressed  by  particip., 
549,  1. 

Caved,  constr.,  385, 1.  Cav^  w.  subj. 
for  imperat.,  489,  2) ;  w.  ne  omitted, 
499,  2.     ^in  cav'e,  581,  IV.,  3. 

-ce,  appended,  186,  1  and  2. 

Ceeidi,  quant,  of  pen.,  591,  1. 

Cedo,  0  in,  581.  11.,  1. 

Celeber,  celer,  aecl.,  153,  N.  1. 

Celo.  constr.,  374,  2. 

Celtiber,  decl.,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of 
increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

-cen,  compds.  m,  341,  1. 

Censed,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

-ceps,  genit.  piur.  of  adjs.  m,  158,  2, 
3);  compds,  in,  342,  1. 

-cer,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 

Ceres,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Certd  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Certus  w\  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Ceter,  ceterus,  defective,  159,  II.  ; 
meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

C'eterum,  310,  3 ;  554,  III.,  2. 

Ch,  sound,  7,  I^. ;  13,  I.,  2. 

Changes  in  consonants,  30  ff*. 

Characteristic,  stem-characteristic, 
nouns,  46,  3;  verbs,  201.  Gen.  of 
characteristic,  396, V. ;  abl.,  419,  II. ; 
41 9   2. 

Chiasmus,  562;  636,  V.,  4. 

Chief  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 

Choliambus,  622,  4. 

Choosing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373; 
w.  two  dats.,  390,  JN.  1,  2). 

Choree,  p.  350,  foot-note  2. 

Choriambus,  597^  N.  1. 

-cida,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

Cilix,  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 


Cingo,  constr.,  377. 

-cino,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-cinus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 

-ci5,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Circa,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 
433;  433,  I. ;  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 

Circiter  w.  ace,  433;  433, 1. 

Circum,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  in 
compds.,  344,  5 ;  compds.  w.  ace, 
372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w.  dat., 
386,  2.  Circum  w.  ace,  433 ; 
433,  I. 

Circumdb,  circnmfundd,  constr.,  p. 
198,  foot-note  1. 

Circumlocutions  w.  res,  genus,  modus, 
ratio,  636,  III.,  10. 

Cis  w.  ace,  433  ;  433,  I. ;  i  in,  579,  3. 

Citerior,  compar.,  166. 

Cities,  plur.  in  names  of,  131,  N. 

Cito,  0  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Citrd,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 
433 ;  433,  I. 

Citum,,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Cicis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Clam  w.  ace  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Clans,  Roman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Classical  period,  640,  IT. 

Classification  of  letters,  3;   verbs, 

257  ff. 

Cldssis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Claudus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Clauses,  348^  N.  1 ;  as  nouns,  gend., 
42,  N.  Prin.  and  sub.  clauses,  348, 
N.  2.  Clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  as 
abl.,  abs.,  431,  ]M.  1;  as  anteced., 
445,  7.  Object  clauses  of  purp., 
498.  Subst.  clauses  of  purp.,  499, 
3  ;  of  result,  501.  Restrictive  clauses 
w.  quod,  503,  I.,  N.  1.  Conditional 
clauses,  513  ;  concess.,  514 if. ;  temp., 
518  ff'. ;  principal,  in  indir.  disc, 
523;  subord.,524.  Indirect  clauses, 
528  ff.  Substantive  clauses,  532  ff. ; 
540.  Relat.  clauses  supplied  by 
particip.,  549, 4.  Frin.  clauses  sup- 
plied by  particip.,  549,  5.  Arrang. 
of  clauses,  570  ft. 

Cldvis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

C liens,  decl.,  64. 

Climax,  637,  VI. 

Close  vowels,  3,  I.,  3. 

Clothing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-co,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Cognate  ace,  371,  I.  and  II. 

Cognomen,  649. 

Cogo,  constr.,  380,  N. ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 2. 

Coins,  Roman,  646. 


396 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


-cola,  compds.  in,  341, 1. 

Collecting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  380.  N. 

Collective  nouns,  39,  2,  1) ;  w.  plur. 
verb,  461,  1. 

Collis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

CoUoco^  constr.,  380,  N. 

Colm^  gend.,  53, 1 ;  118  ;  decl.,  119,  2. 

Com  in  compds. ,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat. ,  386. 

Coming  together,  constr.  w.  verts  of, 
380,  N. 

Camitmm^  comitia^  132. 

Command,  dat.  "w.  verbs  signifying  to, 
385,  I. ;  infin.  after,  535,  II.  ^ubj. 
of  command,  483  fF. 

Commisei'escit,  commisereiur,  constr., 
410,  IV.,  N.  1. 

Common  nouns,  39,  2.  Common  quan- 
tity, 16,  III. ;  575. 

Communis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Commuto^  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

Comparative  conjunas.,  311,  2;  555, 
II.  Comparat.  degree,  160:  decl., 
154 ;  wanting,  167  ;  formed  by  ma- 
gis^  170.  Comparat.  w.  gen.,  397, 
3;  w.  abl.,  417;  w.  quam^  417,  1. 
Use,  444.  Comparat^  w.  ^uam  and 
subj.,  503,  II.,  3.  O  in  increm.  of 
comparat.,  585,  II.,  1. 

Comparative  view  of  conjugations, 
213  if. , 

Comparison  of  adjs.,  160  ff . ;  modes 
of,  161;  terrainational,  162;  irreg., 
163;  defect.,  166;  adverbial,  170; 
of  adverbs,  306.  Use  of  corapar., 
444.  Dat.  w.  verbs  of  comparison, 
385,  4,  3). 

Compes^  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Compleo^  constr.,  410,  V.,  1;  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Complex  sentences,  848  ;  elements, 
357,  2 ;  subject,  359 ;  predicate,  361. 

Complures^  d(3cl.,  154,  N.  1. 

Compos  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 
-OS  in,  581,  VII.,  1 ;  quant,  of  in- 
crem.^ 585,  II.,  3. 

Composition  of  words,  340  if. 

Compound  Words,  313,  N.  2 ;  pro- 
nunciation, 8,  3 ;  p.  8,  foot-note  1 ; 
18,  2.  Compd.  nouns,  decl.,  125  if. 
Compd.  interrog.,  188,  3 ;  nouns, 
341;  343;  adjs.,  342;  343;  verbs, 
221;  344.  Compd.  sentences,  349. 
Compds.  of  preps,  w.  ace,  372;  w. 
two  aces.,  376 ;  w.  dat.,  386.  Quant, 
in  compds.,  594.  Compd.  verse,  601, 
N.  2. 

Computation  of  money,  647. 

Concealing,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces,  j  874. 

Concession,  expressed  by  particip., 
649,  2. 


Concessive  conjunctions,  Sllj  4 ;  655, 
IV.;  concess.  subj.  oi^  desire,  484, 
III.  Concess.  clauses,  514  if. ;  posi- 
tion of,  572,  II.,  N. 

Condemning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410, 
III. 

CoridicO  w.  gen.,  409,  N.  3. 

Condition  expressed  by  imperat.,  487, 
3  ;  by  paiticip.,  549,  2. 

Conditional  conjuncs.,  311,  3;  555, 
III.  Cond.  sentences,  506  if. ;  first 
fonn,  508 ;  sec.  form,  509 ;  third 
form,   510  •   combined  forms,  511 ; 

512.  Conait.  clauses  w.  dum^  etc., 

513.  Condit.  sentences  in  indir. 
disc,  527.  Position  of  condit. 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

Confido  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Conitor^  Qon^tr.^  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Conjugation,  201  If. ;  of  ««w,  204. 
First  conj.,  205  if.  ;  223  if. ;  257  if.  ; 
second,  207  ff. ;  225  ff.  ;  261  if.  ; 
^,  in  imperat.,  581,  IV.,  3  ;  third,  209 
ff. ;  227  ff. ;  269  if. ;  fourth,  211  ff. ; 
229  ff. ;  284  ff. ;  is  in  pres.  indie, 
581,  VIII.,  3  :  verbs  in  id  of  Conj. 
III.,  217.  reriphrastic,  233  ^. 
Peculiarities,  235  ff.  Comparative 
view,  213.  Irreg.  verbs,  289  ff. ; 
defect.,  297  ff. ;  impcrs.,  298  ff.  In- 
crem. of  conj.,  583  ;  584  •  quant.,  586. 

Conjunctions,  309;  coord.,  554;  sub- 
ord.,  555.  Conj.  omittea,  554, 1.,  6. 
Place  of  conj.  in  sentence,  569,  III. 

Conor ^^  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1. 

COnscim  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-not^  3 ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  other  constrs., 
400.  Conscius  mihi  sum  w.  infin., 
635,  I.,  3. 

Consecutive  conjs.,  311.  6;  555,  VI. 

Consequor,,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Consimilis  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Consonant  nouns,  55  ff.  Consonant 
stems,  57  ff.     Consonant  verbs,  209. 

Consonants.  3,  II. ;  double,  3,  N.  2 ; 
sounds  or,  7;  13;  15,  2:  phonetic 
changes  in,  30  ff. ;  intercnanged  w. 
vowels,  28 ;  29  ;  assimilated,  33  ;  34 ; 
dissimilated,  35  ;  omitted,  36. 

Consors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Constitud^  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

Constb  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Consul,,  decl.,  60.^ 

Consulo,^  constr.,  o74,  2;  385,  1. 

Consult  us  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Contendo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1; 
w.  infin.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ;  w.  subj., 
p.  274^  ioot-notc  2. 

Contention,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  4,  3). 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


397 


Contentusvf,  abl.,  420^  1, 4) ;  421,  III. 
Continental  pronunciation  of  Latin, 

15. 
Contincfit^  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 
Continuing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

Contra,,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 
433 ;  433, 1. 

Contraction  of  vowels,  23 ;  in  conju- 
gation, 235.  Quant,  of  syllables  in 
contract.,  576,  I. 

Contrdnus  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3. 

Contro-  in  compds.,  594,  8. 

Convenio,,  constr.,  380,  N. 

Convicting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
II. ;  410,  II. 

Convoco^  constr.,  380,  N. 

Coordinate  conjs.,  309,  1 ;  554. 

Copia,,  copiae,,  132.  Copia  est  w.  in- 
fin., 533,  3,  N.  3. 

Copulative  conjs.,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. 

Copnlb  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Cbr,  defective,  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  3. 

Coram,,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  abl., 
434. 

Cornu,,  decl.,  116. 

Coronldes,,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Cojpus,,  decl.,  61. 

Correlative  pronouns,  191 ;  adverbs, 
305.  Correlat.  compar.  conjuncs., 
555,  II.,  1.  Position  of  correlat. 
clauses,  572,  II.,  N. 

CoSj,  defective,  133,  5. 

-cosus,  adjs.  in,  328. 

Cotldie^  locat.,  120,  N. 

Countries,  names  of,  gend.,  42,  II.,  2  ; 
constr.,  380,  3. 

Cr'edor,,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Crlmine^  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 

-crum,  suilix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  327. 

Cubitus,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Cuicuimodl^  187,  4. 

Cwjas^  cujus^  185,  N.  3. 

Cidusmodl^  cujuscumquemodi,,  187,  4, 

-cula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-culo,  suflix,  p.  156,  foot-note  8. 

-culum,  suilix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1 ; 
nouns  in,  321 ;  327  ;  cii  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-cuius,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.  in,  332 ; 
u  in  pen.,  587,  II.,  3. 

Cam,^  prep.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  ap- 
pended, i§4,  6;  187,  2;  com  in 
compds.,  344,  5.  Cum  w.  abl., 
434 ;  434,  I. ;  of  accompaniment, 
419 ;  of  manner,  419,  III. ;  after 
idem,,  451,  5;  w.  pi.  verb,  461,  4. 
Cum  w.  ger.,  p.  216,  foot-note  1. 

Cum,,  qmim,,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  305, 


IV.;  311,  1  and  4;  p.  151,  foot- 
notes 1  and  4;  311,  7;  w.  perf.  in- 
die, 471^  5 ;  w.  piup.  indie,  472,  2 ; 
introducing  a  condition,  507,  3;  a 
concession,  515,  III. ;  515,  N .  4 ;  a 
causal  clause,  517 ;  a  temp,  clause, 
521.  Cum  w.  innnit.,  524,  1,  2). 
Cum — ^i/m,  554,  I.,  5. 

-cumque,  p.  75,  foot-note  3;  305, 
N.  1. 

Cumulo,,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Cunctl  w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N.  4. 

-cundus,  verbals  in,  333. 

Cupidus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3  ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Cupiens  w.  dat.  of  possessor,  387, 
iN .  o. 

Cupib,,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Cur  a  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 

Curd,,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

-cus,  adjs.  in,  330 ;  333,  5. 

Cyclic  dactyl,  598,  1,  3);  anapaest, 
598,  1,  4). 

Cyclops,,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  2. 

D 

D  for  ^,  32,  N.  1.  D  changed  to  L  32 ; 
assimilated  to  n  or  ^,  34,"  1 ;  to  /,  34. 
2 ;  dropped  before  5,  36,  2.  D  nnal 
dropped,  36,  5,  2).  Quant,  of  final 
syllables  in  d,,  579,  2  ;  580,  II. 

-d,  -da,  nouns  in,  322. 

Dactyl,  597,  I. ;  cvclic,  598,  1,  3). 
Eifcct  of  dactyls,  610,  2. 

Dactylic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  614  ff.  ; 
hexameter,  609  ff. 

Ddmma,,  gend.,  48,  5. 

Danais,,  quant,  of  pen.,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 1. 

Danger,  constr.  w.  expressions  of,  498, 

Daps,,  dapis^  defective,  133,  3. 

Dare  lUterds,  385,  1,  N.  Dare  ope- 
ram  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
E  in  dedl,,  a  in  aatum,  590,  1. 

Daring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I.,  1. 

Dates,  Eng.  and  Lat.,  644. 

Dative,  Decl.  I.,  49,  4;  Decl.  III., 
58,  2 :  66,  2 ;  67,  N.  1 ;  68,  5 ;  Decl. 
IV.,  117,  1;  Decl.  V.,  121, 1. 

Dative,  syntax  of,  382  ff.  Dat.  for 
ace,  380,  4.  Dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3) ;  w.  verbs,  384  ff. ;  w. 
compds. ,  386  ;  of  possessor,  387  ;  of 
ao^ent,  388.  Ethical  dat. ,  389.  Two 
dats.,  390.  Dat.  w.  adjs.,  391 ;  309, 
I..  3,  N.  1 ;  400,  1 ;  w.  nouns  and 
adverbs,  392 ;  w.  refert  and  interest^ 
408, 1.,  3.    Dat.  of  penalty,  410,  III., 


398 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


N.  1.    Bat.  of  ger.,  542,  II. ;  ge- 
rundive, 514,  2.^  ^ 

Dative  sing,  in  f,  581,  I.,  2.  J'J  in 
dat,  Decl  III.,  581,  IV.,  2. 

'  Daughter,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 
I.,  N.  2.   Names  of  daughters,  649, 4. 

Day,  Eom.  division  of,  645. 

l)e  in  compds.  w.  dat.,  386;  "w.  abl., 
434.  N.  1.  De  w.  abl.,  434;  434, 
I.;  for  genit.,  397,  N.  3.  De  w. 
ger.,  p.  316,  foot-note  1. 

Dea^  decl.,  49,  4. 

DeheO  w.  pres.  infin.,  537,  1. 

Decay,  phonetic,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 

DeceDio^  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  1. 

D'ecipid^  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 

Declarative  sentence,  350;  in  indir. 
disc.,  523,  I. 

Declaring,  constr.  w.  verba  of,  535, 1. 

Declp:nsion,  46  ;  first,  48  ;  sec.,  51 ; 
third,  55  ;  fourth,  116  ;  sec.  and 
fourth,  119;  fitth,  120;  compds., 
125.  -6>  in  Decl.  III.,  581,  II.,  2. 
-E  in  Decl.  I.  and  V.,  581,  IV.,  1. 
Increm.  of  decl.,  582;  584;  quant., 
585. 

Dedoceo^  constr.,  374,  2. 

Defective  nouns,  122 ;  127,  II. ;  129  ff. ; 
adjs.,  159,  II.  Def.  compar.,  166  if. 
Def.  verbs,  297. 

Degree,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 

De^^rees  of  comparison,  160. 

Deiiide^  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Delecto^  constr.,  385,  il.,  N.  1. 

Deliberative  subj.,  484,  V.  Delib. 
questions,  523,  II.,  1,  N. 

DeloSj  decl.,  54. 

Delphln^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Demanding,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  186 ;  use 
of,  450  ff. ;  449,  1.  Demon,  roots, 
314,  II.  Demon,  adverbs,  450,  N.  4. 
Demon,  w.  infin.,  538,  3.  Position 
of  demon.,  569,  I.  Demon,  redun- 
dant, 636,  III.,  7. 

Denarius,  646. 

Denique^  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Denominatives,  335. 

Dental  stems,  Decl.  III.,  58. 

Dentals,  3,  II. ;  3,  N.  1,  I.,  2. 

Dependent  clauses,  348,  N.  2.  De- 
pend, questions,  528,  2,  N. 

Deponent  verbs,  195,  2 ;  231 ;  465,  2. 

Depriving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  I. 

Derivation,  321  ff. ;  of  nouns,  321  ff. ; 
adjs.,  328  ff. ;  verbs,  335  ff. 

Derivatives,  quant,  in,  593. 

-des,  nouns  m,  322. 

Descent,  names  of,  322. 


Descriptive  genit.,  396,  V. :  abl.,  419, 

II.,  N.    Descrip.  imperf.  in  temp. 

clauses,  518,  N.  1. 
Desideratives,  284,  2 ;  338. 
Desirw^  constr..  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
Desire,  subj.  or,  483  ft'. ;  for  imperat., 

487;  4. 
Desirmg,  gen.  "W.  adjs.  of,  399,  I.,  1 ; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2  ;'  w.  verbs  of,  410, 

v.,  2.    Subj.  alter  verbs  of,  498, 1. ; 

infinit.,  533,  I.,  1;  535,11. 
Desisto^  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5. 
Dlsperb  w.  ace.,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w. 

dat.  or  ace,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 
Destitute  of,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 
D'esiim^  synaeresis  in,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
Desuper  \v.  ace,  437,  1. 
Deterior^  comparison,  166. 
Deterius^  comparison.  306,  3. 
Determinative  compels.,  343,  I. 
Determininic,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 

I.,  1. 
Deterred^  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 
Deu8^  decl.,  51,  6. 
-dex,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 
Dexter^  decl.,    150,    N.    1) ;    dextm^ 

constr.,  425,  2. 
Dl^  dis^  insep.  prep.,  308  ;  in  compds., 

344,  6  ;  ^  in  dl,  594,  2. 
Diaeresis^  602,  2 ;  608,  IV. 
Dldiia,  i  m,  577,  I.,  3,  (4). 
Diastole,  608,  V. 
Die  for  dlce^  238. 
Dicib^  defective,  134. 
Dicolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 
Dicor^  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Dicto  audiens^  390,  N.  3. 
-dicus,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  compar., 

164. 
Dido^  decl.,  68. 
i>*€.<f,  decl.,  120;  122,  1;  gend.,  123; 

i  in  compds.,  594,  7. 
Difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2 ;  423. 
Differing,  dat.  w.  veros  of,  385,  2; 

385,  4,  2). 
Dijf'erd  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Diificilis^  compar.,  163,  2  ;  w.  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Digno7\  constr.,  421,  N.  2. 
Dlqnus^  constr.,  421,  III.  ;  421,  N.  3. 

Vlgnus  qui  w.  subj.,    503,  II. ,  2. 

Digmis  \v.  supine,  547,  1. 
Diiambus,  597,  N.  1. 
Dimeter,  603,  JSI.  2. 
Diminutive  nouns,  321;  adjs.,  332; 

verbs,  339. 
Diphthongs,  4 ;  sounds  of,  6  ;  12  ;  15, 

1  j  weakening  of,   23,  N. ;  quant. 

ot  syllab.  w.  diphtli.,  576,  1. ;  final 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


399 


diphth.   elided,  608,  I. ;  shortened 

in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  IN.  3. 
Dipody,  597,  N.  2. 
Direct  object,  370  ff.     Direct  disc., 

522,  1;  changed  to  indir.,  530;  in- 
dir. to  direct,  531, 
Directing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 
Direction,  how  expressed,  384,  3,  1) ; 

385,4,  1)3  386,  3. 
Dirimo^  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Dis^  Quant.  oi  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Dis^  ai^  insep.  prep.,  308 ;  in  compds,, 

344,  6. 
Dlsertus^  di  in,  594,  2,  N.  1. 
Disjunctive  conjunctions,  310,  2 ;  554, 

li.     Disjunct,  questions,  353. 
Dispar^  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 

and  3. 
Displeasing,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  I. 
Dispondee,  597,  N.  1. 
Dissenting,  verbs  of,  w.  dat.,  385,  2. 
Dissent  id  ^    dissideo  w.    dat.,   p.    200, 

foot-note  2. 
Dissimilation  of  vowels,  26 ;    conso- 
nants^ 35. 
Dissimilis^  compar.,  163,  2;  constr., 

p.  205,  foot-notes  1,  2,  and  3. 
Dissyllabic     perfects     and     supines, 

quant,  of  pen. ,  590. 
Distance,  abl.  of,  379,  2;  423,  N.  2.    - 
Distich,  606,  N. ;  elegiac,  615. 
Dlsto  w.  dat.,  p.  200,  foot-note  2. 
Distributives,  172,  3;  174;  decl.,  179. 
Ditrochce,  597,  N.  1. 
Diu^  304,  I.,  1 ;  compar.,  306,  4, 
Dlus^  i  in,  577,  I.,  3,  (2). 
Diuturnus^  supcrl.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Diversus^  compar.,  167,  2;  w,  dat.,  p. 

205,  foot-note  1. 
Dives ^  compar.,  165,  N.  2. 
-d5,  nouns  in,  327,  4,  N. ;  decl.,  60,  4. 
Do  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2).    See 

also  dare.    Quant,  of  increm.  of  do^ 

586,  I. 
Doceo^  constr.,  374,  2. 
Doled  w.  ace,  371,  III.,  N.  1 ;  w.  abl., 

p.  221,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  infin.,  p.  310, 

foot-note  2. 
Domiis^    gcnd.,   118 ;    decl.,   119,  1 ; 

constr.,  380,  2^  1) ;  412,  II.,  1 ;  425,  2. 
Donec^  311,  1 ;  m  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Dono^  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Double  consonants,  3,  N.  2.    Double 

constr.   w.  verbs,  384,  2.     Double 

questions,  353. 
Dropping  of  vowels,  27;  consonants, 

36. 
Dry  measure,  Kom.,  648,  II. 
Dt  changed  to  st^  ss^  or  5,  35,  3. 


Dual  number,  p.  68,  foot-note  1. 

Duhito^  constr.,  505,  I. 

Due  for  duee^  238. 

Duco  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2. 

Duim  for  dem^  240,  3. 

Dum^  p.  145,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 1  and  3 ; 
555,  I.,  1 ;  w.  pres.  indie,  467,  4; 
w.  subj.  in  conditions,  513, 1.  Dum 
in  temp,  clauscs^^  519 ;  in  indir. 
clauses,  529,  II.,  IN.  2. 

Dummodo^  311,  3 ;  w.  subj.  in  con- 
ditions, 513, 1. 

Duo,,  dec!.,  175  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 

Duration  of  time,  379. 

-dus,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Dv  changed  to  6,  t',  or  c?,  32,  N.  2. 

E 

E,  e,  sound,  5 ;  10  ff.  E  final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  Nouns  in  ^,  Decl. 
I.,  50  ;  in  6,  Decl.  III.,  63  ;  65,  2  ;  70. 
^',  gend.  of  nouns  in,  Decl.  III., 
111.  -E  in  abl.,  62.  J^in  plur.  of 
Greek  neuters,  68,  6.  jB-nouns, 
120.     ^-verbs,  207.     ^-sterns,  120, 

1.  -E,  -^,  in  adverbs,  304,  1.,  3; 
304.  IL,  2;  304,  III.,  1.  -E,  -e, 
suffix,  320,  II.    E  changed  to  i,  344, 

-     4,N.  1.    ^oreingi,  120,  2;  577, 1., 

2,  (1);  585,  III.,  1.  E  or  e,  final, 
580,  I.;  580,  III.,  N.  2;  581,  IV.  ; 
in  increm.  of  decl.,  585 ;  585,  III. ; 
conj.,  586 ;   586,  II.     E  elided  be- 

_fore  consonant,  608,  I.,  N.  2. 

E  or  €X^  see  ex, 

Ed,  304,11.,  3;  305,  V. 

-ea  injprop.  names,  ein,  577, 1.,  5,  N. 

Eabus  for  els  =  iis,  p.  73,  foot-note  2. 

Eddem,  304,  II..  3  ;  305,  V. 

Easy,  dat.  w.  acljs.  signifying,  391,  I. 

Scastm^  interj.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Ecce,  312,  1 ;  with  demonstratives, 
186,  3;  with  dat.  in  exclamations, 
381,  N.  3,  3). 

Ecqms,  188,  3.  Ecqnid,  p.  180,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ecthlipsis,  604,  I.,  N.  4. 

Edim  for  edam,  240,  3. 

-edd,  nouns  in,  325  ;  e  in,  587,  I.,  2. 

Edoceo,  constr.,  374,  2. 

Ee  in  synaeresis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 

Effect,  ace  of,  371,  I.,  2,  2). 

Efficid,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2; 
501,  II.,1. 

Effigies,  dQoX.,  122,  2. 

Effort,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Egenvs,  compared,  164,  1;  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3;  p.  219,  foot- 
note 4. 


400 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


401 


^ 


^ 


Egeo^  constr.,  410, _V.,  1. 

Lgo^  decl.,  184.     /in  mihl^  581,  I.,  2. 

O  in  ego^  581,  II.,  1. 
Ehem^  inter].,  312,  1. 
Eheu^  interf.,  312,  3;  \v.  ace,  381,  N. 

2;  ein,  577,1.,  2,  (3). 
Eha^  ehodum^  312,  5  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 
Ei,  interj.,  312,  3 ;  w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3, 

3). 
Ei,  pronunciation  as  diphthong,  6,  1 ; 

12,  1;  g  or  e  in  U^  120.  2;  677,  I., 

2,  (1);  585,  III.,  1.     Ei  in  synae- 
_rcsis,  608,  III.,  N.  1. 
-eis,  e  in,  587, 1.,  3. 
-eius,  6  in,  577,  I.,  2,  (2). 
J)'a,  312,  2  and  6 ;  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 
Ejusmodl^  186,  4,  N. 
-ela,  e  in,  587,  I.,  4. 
Elepfiac  Distich,  615. 
Elements  of  sentences,  356  ff, 
-elis,  ~e  in,  587, 1.,  4. 
Elinon,  608,  I. 
-ella,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Ellam  for  en  illam^  186,  3. 
Ellipsis,  636,  I. 
-ellum,  nouns  in,  321,  4. 
Ellum  for  en  illum^  186,  3. 

-ellus  in  nouns,  321,  4;  adjs.,  332, 

_N.  1.  ->     1      ^    ->        -> 

Eluvies^  defective,  122,  3. 

-em  in  ace,  62. 

Emotion,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 

410,  v.,  2;  535,111. 
Emphasis  in  arrancr.  of  words,  561. 
Emphatic  forms  of  pronouns,  184,  3; 
185,    N.    2.      Emphatic    adverbial 
phrases,  305,  N.  4. 
En.,  312,  1 ;  w.  demonstratives,  186, 

3  ;  in  exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  3). 
-en,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 
Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in  -en. 
585,  III.,  2. 
-5na,  e  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
Enallage,  636,  IV. 
Enclitics,   accent,  18,  2,  1) ;   quant., 

579,  I.,  1. 
End,  dat.  of.  384,  1,  3).     End  of  sen- 
tence empnatic,  561,  II. 
Endeavoring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498, 

IL,  N.  1. 
Ending,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 1.,  1. 
Endings  of  genitive,  47 ;    of  cases, 
Decl.  I.,  48;  49;  Decl.   II.,  51,  2, 
3);  52-  Decl.  III.,  62,  I.,  2;   67; 
Decl.  IV.,  116  ;  117 ;  Decl.  V.,  120 ; 
121;   in  compar.,  162;   conj.,  213- 
216. 
Endo,  0  in,  581,  IL.  1. 
English  pronunciation  of  Latin,  9  fF. 
-eni,  6  in,  587,  L,  8. 


Enim.,  310,  5;  554,  V.,  3;  position, 
_569,  IIL 

Emtor^  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Enneaay liable  verse,  619,  1. 
-ensis,  adjs.  in,  330;  331. 
-entj  suffix,  320,  II. 

-entia,  -entio,  suffixes,  p.  155,  foot- 
note 9. 

-entior,  -entissixnus,  in  compar., 

164. 

-ento,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  9. 

Enumerative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
_notc  1. 

-enus,  5  in,  587,  L,  5. 

Ed.  Ire.,  w.  sup.  in  -z/w,  546,  2 ;  Irl  w. 
do.,  546,  3.  /in  Iham^  ibo^  etc.,  586, 
IIL,  4.     /in  Uum.,  590,  1. 

Ed.,  adverb,  304,  IL,  3,  N. ;  305,  IL  ; 
554,  IV.,  1 ;  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot- 
note 3. 

Eddem.,  305,  II. 

Epcnthesis,  635,  4. 

Ephesas^  decl.,  51,  8. 

Epicene  nouns,  43,  3. 

Ejiiphora,  636,  IIL,  4. 

E/pttome.,  decl.,  50. 

Epizeuxis,  636,  IIL,  5. 

-eps,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

fmlum.,  epulae.,  143,  3. 
juester.,  decl.,  153,  N.  1. 
Equivalents,  metrical,  598. 
-er,  nouns  in,  gend.,  53;  99;  103; 

decl.,  51,  4;  60,  3;  adjs.  in,  decl., 

62,  IV.,  N.  1 ;  150    N. ;  153,  N.  2; 

compar.,  163,  1.     Quant,  of  increm. 
_of  nouns  in  -er.,  585,  IIL,  4. 
-ere  for  erimt.,  236. 
Ergd.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 

433  ;  433, 1. ;  after  adjs.,  391,  IL,  1 ; 

forgen.,396,  IIL,N.  1. 
Ergo,  310,  4;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

gen.,  398,  5. 
-erunt  for  -eriuit,  236,  N. ;  586,  IL,  4. 
Es  attached  to  preceding  word,  27,  ]N. ; 

e  in,_579,  3  ;  m  compds.,  681,  VL,  2. 
-es,  -es,  suffixes,  320,  IL    Nouns  in 

-es,    327;    decl.,    65,   1;    80;    120; 

quant,    of  increm.,    585,    IIL,   4; 

gend.,    99;    104  j    105;    109;    120. 

Decl.  of  nouns  m  -es.,  81 ;  gend. , 

99  ;  104.    Es  or  -es  final,  580^  IIL  ; 

681,  VI.     A  in  voc.  of  Greek  nouns 
jn  -es^  p.  341,  foot-note  1. 
-esimus,  e  in,  587,  IIL,  3. 
Esse  omitted,  534,  N. 
Essential  elements  of  sentences,  357, 1. 
-6sso,  -essim,   in    fut.    perf.    and 

perf.  subi.,  240,  4. 
-esso,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 
Est  drops  initial,  27,  N.    Est  vt,  498, 


II. ,  N.  2.  Est.,  impers.,  constr.,  p. 
276,  foot-note  2.  Est  at  end  of  line, 
613,  N.  3. 
-ester,  -estris,  adjs.  in,  330, 1. 
Et.,  310,  1 ;  554,  I. ;  'meaning  a^,  451, 
6;  than.,  459,  2.  Et—et.,  et — que., 
que — et.,  neque  (nee) — et.,  et — neqii^ 
(nee),  554,  I.,  5.  Et  in  poetry, 
position,  569,  IIL,  N.  Preps,  re- 
peated w.  et — et.,  636,  IIL,  6. 

-et  in  Plautus  for  -et.,  580,  IIL,  N.  2. 

-eta,  e  in,  587,  L,  7. 

-etas,  e  in.  587,  IL,  4. 

Etenim,  310,  5;  554,  V.,  2. 

Ethical  dat.,  389. 

Etiam,  310,  1 ;  554,  I.,  2,  4,  and  5. 

Etiamsl.  etsi.,  311,4;  in  concessions, 
_515,  IL   Etsl  =  '  yet,»  etc.,  515,  N.  2. 

-etiim,  nouns  in,  323 ;  e  in,  587,  L,  7. 

-etus,  ^in,  687,  L,  7. 

Etymology,  37-344.  Figures  of  cty- 
mol.,  634,  N. ;  635. 

Eu,  sound,  6,  1 ;  12. 

Evqe^  interj.,  312,  2  and  6. 

Euhoe.,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Euphemism,  637,  XL,  4. 

Euphony  in  arrang.  of  words,  561. 

-eus,  adjs.  in,  329 ;  -'eus.,  331.    -Em 
_in  prop,  nouns,  e  in,  677,  5,  N. 

Evenit.,  constr.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Evoe.,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Ex^  e.,  in  compds.,  344,  6;  w.  dat., 
386,  2;  w.  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  ^o;  w. 
abl.  for  part,  gen.,  397,  N.  3.  Ex., 
e,w.  abL,  434;  434,  I.  ^,  ex^  434, 
N.  2.  l/x^  e.,  w.  ger.,  p.  316,  foot- 
note 1. 

-ex,  -ex,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  92 ;  93. 
Compds.  in  -ex.,  341,  1. 

Exadversum.,  exadversus.,  w.  ace,  433. 

Exanimus.,  exanimis.,  159,  III. 

Exchanging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  422, 
N.  2. 

Exclamatory  sentences,  355;  ace  in, 
381 ;  voc,  nom.,  dat.  in,  381,  N.  3 ; 
infin.  in,  539,  III. 

Exlstimo.,  constr.,  634,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Exonero.,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Exos^  -OS  in,  581,  VIL,  1. 

Expedidy  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Expers  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Explicative  asyndeton,  p.  370,  foot- 
note 1. 

Exposed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Exsequids.,  ace  of  limit,  380,  2,  3). 

ExsoXvd.,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Exsors  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Extempld.,  304,  IL,  1,  N. 

Extent  of  space,  ace  of,  379. 

External  object,  371,  I.,  1. 


Exterus.,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Extra.,  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 

433 ;  433,  I. 
Extr'emus.,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 
Exud.^  constr.,  377 ;  p.  198,  foot-note 

1 ;  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 


Fac  for  face.,  238.  Fac  lie  w.  subj.  in 
prohibitions,  489,  2).  A  in  fac, 
679,3.  -^     ' 

Fades,  decl.,  122,  2. 

Fadlis,  compar.,  163,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Facid,  accent  of  compds.,  18,  2,  2). 
Facid  omitted,  368,  3,  N.  1.  Facid 
w.  dat.,  385,  3 ;  w.  pred.  gen.,  403  ; 
w.  abl.,  415,  IIL,  N.  1.  Facid  ut, 
498,  IL,  N.  2.  Facid  w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2;  499,  2;  501,  ll.,  1. 
E  before  / in  compds.,  694,  6. 

-facto,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

Facultds.,  facultdtes,  132. 

Falsus.,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Fdma  fert  w.  infin.,  635, 1.,  3. 

Fames ^  abl.  fame.,  137,  2. 

Familia.,  genitive,  49,  1.  Familid.^ 
constr.,  415,  II. ,  N. 

Far.,  decl.,  63,  2,  N. ;  133,  N. 

Eds.,  defect.,  134;  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Fastididsus  w.  gen.,  p.  210^  foot- 
note 3. 

Faux,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Favorite  vowel j  24. 

Fax,  quant,  of  mcrem.,  585, 1.,  4,  (3). 

Faxd,faxim,  ioxfecerd,f'ecerim,  240, 4. 

Fearing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  IIL 

Fehris,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Feeling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. ; 
410,  v.,  2  ;  635,  III. 

Feet  in  versification,  597. 

Eel,  defective,  133,  4,  N. 

Felix.,  decl.,  156. 

Feminine,  42,  II.    Fern,  caesura,  611,  N. 

Fer  ioxfere.,  238  ;  e  in,  679,  3. 

-fer,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  decl.,  61,  4, 
2) ;  adjs.  in,  150,  3),  N. 

Fere,ferme,  e  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Ferd  and  compds.,  increm.  of,  586,  1. 

Feror,  constr.,  634,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Fertilis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Ferus,  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Festivals,  plur.  in  names  of,  explained, 
131,  N. ;  plur.  in  -alia,  decl.,  136,  3. 

-fex,  compds.  in,  341,  1. 

-fico,  verbs  in,  344,  3. 

-ficus,  adjs.  in,  342, 1 ;  compar.,  164. 

Fidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Fidl.,  i  in,  590,  1. 


402 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Fldo  w.  abl.,  425, 1,  1),  N. 

Fifth  decl.,120  if. ;  gfinal  in,581,  IV., 1. 

Figures  of  prosody,  608.  Fig.  of 
speech,  634  ff. ;  of  etymoloo^y,  634, 
Is .  ;  635 :  of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  636 ; 
of  rhetoric,  634,  N. ;  637. 

Fllia^  decl.,  49,  4. 

Filix  w.  short  incrcm.,  p.  243,  foot- 
note 2. 

Filling,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Final  conjunctions,  311,  5 ;  555,  V. 
Final  vowels  and  syllables,  quant, 
of,  580  ;  581.  Fin.  syl.  of  verse,  605. 
Fin.  syl.  elided,  608,  I.  Fin.  long 
vowel  or  diphthong  shortened  in 
hiatus.  608,  ll.,  N.  3. 

Finis^  decl.,  62,  IV.  ;  singular  and 
plur.,  132. 

Finite  verb,  199,  N. 

Finitimus^  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes 
1  and  3. 

Fid  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  1);  w. 
abl.,  415,  III.,  N.  1.  Fit^  constr., 
p.  276,  foot-note  2.  /  or  i  in  flo^ 
577, 1.,  3,  (1).  -£' before/ in  compds., 
694,  6. 

First  decl.,  48  ff. ;  e final  in,  581,  IV.,  1. 
First  conjugat.,  205  ff. ;  223  ff. ;  257  ff. 

Flagito  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Floccl,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Flos^  decl.,  61. 

Following,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
I.,  1. 

Foot,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Koman  foot,  648,  IV. 

'  For,^  how  translated,  384,  3. 

Fords,  304,  I.,  1. 

Fore  ut^  537,  3. 

Foreign  words  indecl.,  128,  2. 

Forgetting,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Forls,  *in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Formation  of  steins  of  verbs,  249  ff.  ; 
of  words,  313  ff. ;  of  nouns,  321  ff. 

Fornix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Fors^  defective,  134. 

Forsitan^  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  w.  subj.,  p. 
267,  foot-note  1. 

Fortuitus^  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Fortuna^  fortunae,  132. 

Fourth  decl. ,  11 6  ff.  Fourth  conjugat. , 
211  ff. ;  229  ff. ;  284  ff. 

Fractions,  174,  1. 

Fraudo^  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Fraus^  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Free  from,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signify- 
ing, 414,  III. 

Frenum^  ^l.frenl^frena^  143,  2. 

Frequentatives,  336. 


FrUus  w.  abl.,  425,  1,  1),  N. 

Pi'icatives,  3,  II.,  4. 

Friendly,  constr.  w.  adjs.  signifying, 

391,  1.  and  II. 
Fructus^  decl.,  116. 
Frugi^  indeclin.,   159,  I.  ;    compar., 

165,  N.  2. 
Fruor,   constr.,  421,  I.;   421,   N.   4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Frux,   defective,    133,   3  ;    quant,   of 

increm.,  535,  v.,  2. 
Fit  am  for  sim,  204,  2. 
Fulness,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1.,  3. 
Fungor^  constr.,  421,  I.  ;  421,  N.  4; 

gerundive  of,  544,  2,  N.  5. 
Fiir,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 
Furnishing,   constr.  w.   verbs  of,  p. 

225,  foot-note  3. 
Future,  197;  222.    Fut.  indie.,  470; 

for  imperat.,  487, 4.    Fut.  in  condit., 

511,  1,  N.  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  p. 

293,  foot-note    2.      lut.  in    subj., 

479  ;  481 ;  496.     Fut.  imperat.,  487, 

2.      Fut.  infin.,   537  ;    periphrast., 

537,  3.     Fut.  particip.,  550. 
Future  Perfect,  197,  II.  ;  222,  II. ; 

473;  in  subj..  496;  in  indir.  disc, 

525.  2  ;  in  inlinit.,  537,  3,  N.  2.    -h 

in  fut.  perf.,  581,  VlII.,  5. 
Futurum  esse  ut,  537,  3.      Futurinn 

sit,  esstt,  ut,  p.  272,  foot-note  2. 

G 

G  formed  from  C',  2,  2  ;  sound.  7 ;  13 ; 
changed  to  c,  33,  1 ;  assimilated  to 
m,  34,  3 ;  dropped,  36,  3. 

Gaudeo,  constr.,  p.  221,  foot-note  2; 
p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Gdvisus,  i  in,  586,  III.,  2. 

Gemo  w.  ace,  371,  III.,  N. 

Gems,  gend.  of  names  of,  53,  1. 

Gender.  41  ff.  •  Decl.  I.,  48 ;  Decl.  II., 
53;  Decl.  III.,  99-115;  Decl.  IV., 
118.  Decl.  v.,  123;  general  table, 
124. 

Gener,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

General  relatives,  p.  75,  foot-note  3. 
Gen.  rcl.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  Gen. 
subject,  460,  1,  N.  2.  Gen.  truths, 
467,  II. ;  in  conditions,  508,  5;  511, 
1.    Gen.  negat.,  553,  1  and  2. 

Geneve^  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 

Genitive,  endings  of,  47  ;  Decl.  I.,  as 
for  ae^  um  for  drvm,  49;  Decl.  II., 
i  for  ^^,  51 ,  5 ;  um  for  drum,  52,  3  ; 
on  for  drum,  54,  N.  1 ;  Decl.  III.. 
um  or  ium^  p.  36,  foot-notes  3  ana 
4;  p.  38,  loot-note  2;  p.  40,  foot- 
note 3  ;  yos,  ys,  68,  2 ;  an,  68,  4 ; 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


403 


Decl.  IV.,  uis^  uos,  for  us,  117 ; 
Decl.  v.,  I,  ei,  es,  for  H,  121.  Gen. 
in  adjs.,  158,  2.  -Us  m  gen.,  581, 
IX.,  2. 

Genitive,  syntax,  393  ff. ;  how  ren- 
dered, 393,  N.  Gen.  w.  possessives, 
363,  4,  1);  w.  nouns,  395;  varie- 
ties, 396  ;  in  special  constructions, 
398;  406  ff . ;  w.  adjs.,  391,  II.,  4; 
399;  w.  verbs,  401  ff.  Pred.  gen., 
401  ff. ;  of  price,  404 ;  405.  Ace. 
and  gen.,  409.  Gen.  w.  adverbs, 
397,  4.  Gen.  of  j^er.,  542,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  gen.  w.  ad.i.,  565,  2 ;  between 
prep,  and  case,  569,  II.,  3. 

Genitus  w.  abl.,  415,  II. 

Gentes,  Koman,  how  designated,  331, 
N.  2. 

Gentile  nouns,  331,  N.  1. 

Genus,  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10. 

-ger,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  decl.,  51, 
4,  2);  ad.is.    150,  N. 

Gerund,  200,  II. ;  endings,  248.  Ger- 
und in  sequence  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Syntax  of  gerund,  541  ;  542.  Ger. 
w.  pass,  meaning,  541,  N.  Cases 
of  ger.,  542.  Ger.  w.  gen.,  mei, 
etc.,  542,  I.,  N.  1 ;  denoting  pur- 
pose, 542,  I.,  N.  2  •  542,  111.,  JN.  2. 

Gerundive,  200,  IV.  ;  syntax,  543. 
Gerund,  constr.,  543,  N. ;  544;  de- 
noting purpose,  544,  2,  N.  2;  w. 
official  names,  544,  2,  N.  3;  after 
comparat.,  544,  2,  N.  4. 

Gignd  w.  genui,  aenitum,,  592,  2. 

Giving,  verbs  ot,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 

:n.  1, 2). 

Glades,  decl.,  122,  3. 

Gils,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant. 

of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Glyconic  verse,  604.  N.  1 ;  628,  III. 

and  VII. ;  631,  IV.-VI. 
Gn  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N.  2. 
Gndrus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Gnomic  perfect,  471,  5. 
-g6,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  60,  4. 
Going,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N. 

1,  1). 
Golden  age,  640,  II.,  1. 

Gracilis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Gratia,  grdtiae,  132. 

Grdtis^  im^581,  VIII.,  1. 

Grdtuitas,  %  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Grdtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Graviter  ferd,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot- 
note 2. 

Greater  Ionic,  597,  N.  1 ;  Archilo- 
chian,  628,  X. ;  616,  N. ;  619,  N. ; 


Asclepiadean,  628,  V. ;  Sapphic, 
628,  VII. ;  Alcaic,  628,  IX. 

Greek  Nouns,  Decl.  1^  50 ;  Decl.  II., 
54;  Decl.  III.,  68.  Long  vowels  in 
Greek  nouns,  577,  5.  7,  i,  in  dat. 
and  voc,  581,  1.,  2.  -A  in  voc, 
581,  III.,  2.  -E  in  plur.,  581,  IV., 
1.  -^5  in  ace,  581,  V.,  2.  -Es  in 
Greek  words,  581,  VI..  3;  -os,  581, 
VII.,  2;  -fis,  581,  IX.,  3.  A  in 
increm.  of  nouns  in  a  and  as,  585, 
I.,  3.  O  in  increm.,  585,  11.^  5;  e 
in  words  in  -en,  585,  III.,  2 ;  in  -es 
and  er^  585,  III.,  4.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem. of  words  in  -ax,  585, 1.,  4,  (3). 
/  in  increm.,  585,  IV.,  3. 

Grimm's  law,  638,  N.  2. 

Grics,  decl.,  66,  2. 

Gryps,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Guilt,  adjs.  of;  w.  genit.,  399, 1.,  3. 

Gutturals,  3,  II. ;  before  s,  30.  Gut- 
tural stems,  59. 

H 

11  changed  to  c,  33, 1.  N.  1 ;  following 
other  consonants,  does  not  lengthen 
preceding  syllable,  576,  1,  N.  1. 
{syllable  before  h  short,  577. 

Hahed,  meaning,  p.  202,  foot-note  3 ; 
w.  two  aces.,  373,  1,  N.  1 ;  w.  perf. 
part.,  388,  1,  N. ;  w\  two  dats.,  390, 
jN.  1,  2). 

Hdc,  304,  II.,  3;  305,  V. 

Iladria,  gend.,  48,  5. 

JIaec  Horfiae,  p.  72,  foot-note  7. 

Hdlitus^  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 

Happening,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 
1.,  1. 

Hand,  use,  552. 

IJejn,  inter].,  312,  6;  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 

//?w,interi.,312,  l;w.  dat.,381,N.3,3. 

Hendiadys,  636,  III.,  2. 

Hepar.  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4, 1. 

Hephtnemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

HephthemimeriSj  597,  N.  2. 

H'er'es^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Heroic  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Herds,  decl.,  68. 

Hetcroclites,  127 ;  135  ff. ;  adjs.,  159, 
HI. 

Heterogeneous  nouns,  127;  141  ff. 

Hen,  inter].,  312,  3 ;  w\  ace,  381,  N.  2. 
Heu  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Heus^  interj.,  312,  5. 

Hexameter,  603,  notes  2  and  6  ;  609  ff. 

Hiatus,  608,  II. 

Hiber,  decl.,  51,  4,  3);  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  111.,  3. 


404 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Hie,  186;  191 ;  use, 450;  !  in,  579,  3.    O 

in  hbc^  579,  3.    Hoc.  redundant,  636, 

III.,  7. 
Eic,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305,  I. ;  w.  gen.,  p. 

209,  foot-note  3. 
Hilar us^  hilaris^  159,  III. 
Bine,  305,  111. 

Hindering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Historical  tenses,  198;  hist,   present, 

467,  HI. ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  N. 

1 ;  hist,  perfect,  198,  1 ;  197,  N.  1 ; 

471,  11.     Hist,  tenses  in  sequence, 

491  ff.     Hist,  infin.,  536,  1. 
Hoc.  304,  11.,  3,  N. 
Hodie,  120,  N. ;  304,  II.,  1 ;  ^  in,  p. 

341,  foot-note  2 ;  o  in,  594,  10. 
Honestus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Horace,  lof]:aoedic  verses  in,  628 ;  ver- 
sification, 630  tf. ;  lyric  metres,  631 ; 

index,  632. 
Horreo  w.  ace,  371,  111.,  N. 
Hofsum,  305,  II. 
Hortative  subj.,  484,  II. 
Jlortor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Hortus,  hortl,  132. 
Hospitus^  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  2. 
Hostile,   constr.   w.   adjs.   signifying, 

391,  11.,  1. 
Hostis,  decl.,  62. 
Hours,  Koman,  645 ;  645,  2. 
H  S,  sii^nitication,  647,  3. 
Hue,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  II. ;  w.  gen., 

p.  209,  foot-note  3. 
Hujiisrnodi,  186,  4,  N. 
Humilis,  compar.,  163,  2. 
Humus,  gend.,  53,  1 ;  huml,   locat., 

426,  2. 
*  Husband,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398, 

1,  N.  2. 
Hydrops,  quant,  of  incrcm.,  585,  II.,  2. 
Ilypallage,  636,  IV.,  2. 
Hyperbaton,  636,  V. 
Hyperbole,  637,  VI. 
Hypermetrical,  603.  N.  3. 
Hypothetical,  see  Conditional. 
Hysteron  proteron,  636,  V.,  2. 


I  for  J,  p.  2,  foot-note  1.  J,  i,  sound, 
5;  10  if.  /final  shortened,  21,  2, 
3).  /  interchanged  with  j,  28 ; 
dropped,  36,  4.  /  for  il  and  ie, 
51,  5.  /-nouns,  55 ;  *'- verbs,  211. 
Stems  in  i,  62  ff.  ;  origin  of,  p.  35, 
foot-note  3.  Nouns  in  i,  71 ;  gend., 
111.  -/in  abl.,  62;  for  H,  121,  1 ; 
in  adverbs,  304,  II.,  2;  304,  111.,  1. 
/,  i,  or  i  final,  680,  I. ;  581,  I. ;  in 


increments  of  decl.,  685 ;  685,  IV. ; 

conj.,  586;  586,  111.      /  as  conso- 
nant, 608,  III.,  N.  2. 
-ia,  suffix,  320^  II.      Nouns  in  -ia, 

325  ;  -ia  and  les,  138. 
-ia  in  prop,  names,  i  in,  577,  6,  N. 
-iacus,  adjs.  in,  331 ;  a  in,  587,  II.,  2. 
-iades,  a  in,  587,  II.,  1. 
Iambic  verse,  603,  N.  1 ;  621  ff. ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XVI. 
Iambus,  597,  II. ;  irrational,  598, 1,  2). 
-ianus,  adjs.  in,  331. 
-ibam  for  -i'ebam,  240, 1. 
Iber,  decl.,  51,  4, 3);  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  111.,  3. 
Ihl,  304,  HI.,  2  ;  305,  I.  and  IV. ;  i  in, 

581, 1.,  2 ;  quant,  of  ult.  in  compds., 

594j  9. 
-ibilis,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  IV.,  1. 
-Ibo,  -ibor,  for  -iam,  -iar,  240,  2. 
lb  us,  for  eis=iis,  p.  73,  loot-note  2. 
-icius,  adjs.  in,  329. 
Jctus,  599:  place  in  liexam.,  612. 
-icus,  aclis.  in.  330;  331;  compar., 

169,3.    '/in  ^c^/5,  587,  H.,  2. 
-icus,  adjs.  in^  335,  5. 
Id  ago  w!  subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

/d?' redundant,  636,  111.,  7. 
Idcircb,  554,  IV.,  2. 
Idem,  decl.,  186,  VI. ;  w.  dat.,  391, 

N.  1.     Use  o^  idem,  451. 
Ideo^  554,  IV.,  2. 
-ides  or  -idcs,  in  patronymics,  587, 

11.,  1. 
Ides,  j)42,  I.,  3. 
-id  6,  i  in,  587,  I.,  2. 
Idoneus  w.   dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Idbneus  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  2. 
Idas,  gend.,  118. 
-idus,  i  in,  587,  II.,  2. 
-ie,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-iensis,  adjs.  in,  331. 
-ier  for  I  in  intinit.,  240,  6. 
-ies,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1 ;  327 ;  -ie« 

and  ia,  138. 
-i^nti,  quant,  of  antepen.,  587,  III., 

3. 
Igitur,  310,4;  554,  IV.,  3;  position, 

569,  111. 
Jgndrus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Icjiiis,  decl.,  62. 

Ignotus\w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
-igo,  nouns  in,  324,  N. ;  327,  4,  N. ; 

i  in,  587,  I.,  2. 
-ile,  nouns  in,  323 ;  i  in,  587,  I.,  4. 
Ilico,  304,  II.,  1,  N.  ;  o  in,  581,  II.,  1. 
I  lion,  decl.,  54. 

-ilis,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  2;  168, 
1.    /in  -ilis,  587j  II.,  5. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


405 


-ilis,  adjs.  in,  330;  compar.,  169,  3. 
/in  ilis,  587,  II.,  N.  1. 

-ilia,  nouns  in,  321,  4, 

Iliac,  305,  V. 

Illative  conjs.,  310,  4  ;  554,  IV. 

Ille,  186:  191;  use,  450;  position, 
569,  I.,  1.  Illud,  redundant,  636, 
\U.,  7. 

Illic,  decl.,  186,  2. 

Illlc,  304,  III..  2 ;  305,  I. 

lUuic,  305,  HI. 

-illo,  verbs  in,  339. 

Hid,  Hide,  illUc,  304,  II.,  3,  N.  ;  illiic, 
305,  II. 

Illfido,  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

-illus,  -ilium,  nouns  in,  321,  4; 
adjs.,  332,  N.  1. 

-im  in  ace,  62;  for  -am  or  -em  in 
prcs.  subj.,  240,  3.  Adverbs  in  -im, 
p.  144,  foot-note  3. 

Imbecillis,  compar.,  163,  2. 

Imber,  decl.,  62,  N.  2;  65,  1,  2). 

Imbub,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Immemor  w.  ^en.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3;  quant,  oflncrem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

-imonia,  nouns  in,  325;  o  in,  587, 
HI.,  4. 

-imonium,  nouns  in,  324 ;  0  in,  587, 
HI..  4. 

Impedlm^entum,  impedimenta,  132. 

Impellb,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Imperative,  196,  HI.  Syntax,  487  ff. 
Imperat.  in  prohibitions,  488  ff". ;  in 
indir.  disc,  523,  HI.  Imperat.  sen- 
tences, 354.  Imperat.  subj.,  484, 
IV.  j^  in  Imperat.,  Conj.  II.,  581, 
IV.,  3. 

Imperfect  Tense,  197,  I.;  222,  I. 
Imperf.  indie,  468  ff . ;  subj.,  480; 
in  subj.  of  desire,  483,  2 ;  in  potent, 
subj.,  485,  N.  1;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 
493;  495,  HI. ;  for  future  time,  496, 
I. ;  in  condit.,  507,  HI. ;  510 ;  513, 
N.  1;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  3;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1  ;  518,  1  ; 
519,  2,  N.  1;  520,  11.;  521,  II. 

Imperil  us  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3  ; 
p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Imperb,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ; 
p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

Impersonal  verbs,  298  ff. ;  impers. 
pass.,  195,  II.,  1;  534,  1.  Clauses 
of  result  as  subjects  of  impers.  verbs, 
501,  I.,  1. 

Impertib,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Impetrb,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 

Impleb,  constr.,  410,  V .,  1  ;  p.  225, 
foot-note  3. 

Imploring,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374,  2, 


Impos,  08  in,  581,  VII.,  1;  quant,  of 
mcrem.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Impotens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Imprudens  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note 
3;  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Impulse,  subj.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  11. 

Imputing,  two  datives  w.  verbs  of, 
390,  N.  1,  2). 

Imus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

-in,  suffix,  320,  II. 

In,  308  ;  in  compds.,  S44,  5  and  6  ;  w. 
dat.,  386.  In  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  435; 
435,  N.  1 ;  435,  I. :  w.  ace.  after 
adjs.,  391,  IL,  1;  lor  genit.,  396, 
Hi.,  N.  1.  In  w.  abl.  for  genit., 
397,  3,  N.  3.  In  w.  jrer.,  p.  315, 
foot-note  5;  p.  316,  foot-note  1.  1 
in  in,  579,  3. 

-ina,  nouns  in,  324. 

Incassum,  304,  1.,  2. 

Inc'edb.  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Inceptives,  280 ;  337. 

Incertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inchoatives,  337. 

Inclination,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  391, 

11.,  1,  (2). 

Inelutus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Ineredibilis  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Increments^  quant,  in,  582  ff . ;  decl., 
585  ;  con].,  586. 

Inde,  304,  til.,  N. ;  305,  III.  •  310,  4. 

Indeclinaole  nouns,  127,  1.;  128; 
gend.,  42,  N.     Indecl.  adjs.,  159,  I. 

Indefinite  pronouns,  189  ;  455  ff.  In- 
def.  relat.  adverbs,  305,  N.  1.  In- 
def.  subject,  460,  1,  N.  2 ;  518,  2. 

Independent  clauses,  348,  N.  2. 

Index  of  verbs,  p.  383 ;  lyric  metres 
of  Horace,  632. 

Indicative,  196,  I. ;  use,  474  ff.  In- 
die, for  subj.  in  condit.,  511. 

Indigeb,  constr.,  410,  V.,  1. 

Indlgnus,  constr.,  421,  HI.,  421,  N. 
3.  Indlgnus  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  II., 
2.     Indlgnus  w.  supine,  547,  1. 

Indigus,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4.^ 

Indirect  Discourse,  522;  moods  in 
prin.  clauses,  523;  in  sub.  clauses, 
524 ;  tenses,  525  *  persons  and  pro- 
nouns, 526 ;  condit.  sentences,  527. 
Direct  changed  to  indir.,  530 ;  indir. 
to  direct,  531.  Indirect  clauses,  528 
ff. ;  questions,  529 ;  subj.  in,  529, 
I. ;  indie,  529,  7. 

Indirect  Object,  382  ff.";  w.  direct 
object,  384,  II. 

Indo-European  languages,  638. 

Indu^  u  in,  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 

Indueb^  constr.,  377. 

Indulging,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 


406 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Induo^  constr.,  3'r7  ;  p.  198^  foot-note  1. 

-ine,  nouns  in,  322,  N. ;  tin,  5S7, 1.,  3. 

Inferne^  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Inferus^  compar.,  1G3,  3. 

Jafidelis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Injimus^  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Infinitive,  200,  I. ;  origin,  p.  15G, 
foot-note  1;  gend.,  42,  N. ;  end- 
ings, 248.  Infin.  in  seq^uence  of 
tenses,  495,  4.  Infin.  in  relat, 
clauses,  524,  1,1)3  after  conjs.,  524, 
1.  2).  Construction  of  inhn.,  532 
fi.  Infin.  w.  verbs,  533.  Infin.  of 
purpose,  533,  II.  Infin.  w.  adjs., 
533,  II.,  3;  w.  verb,  nouns,  etc., 
533,  3,  N.  3  ;  w.  preps.,  533,  3,  N. 
4 ;  w.  verbs  w.  ace.,  534 ;  535.  Sub- 
iect  of  infin.,  536.  Histor.  infin., 
536,  1.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2. 
Tenses  of  infin.,  537.  Infin.  as  sub- 
ject, 538.  Infin.  in  special  constr., 
539;  as  pcd.,  539,  1.;  as  appos., 
539,  II. ;  in  exclamations,  539,  III.  ; 
in  abl.  abs.,  539,  IV. 

Infitids^  constr.,  380,  2,  3). 

Influence,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  1). 

Infrd^  p.  149,  foot-note  2;  w.  ace, 
433 ;  433,  I. 

Ingrdtls^  is  in,  581,  VIII.,  1. 

Itiqrdtus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Inheritance,  divisions  of,  646,  3,  4). 

-ini,  quant,  of  pen.,  587,  I.,  8. 

Liimlcus^  injdciindas^  w.  dat.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  1. 

Injuring,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

hijiltor  w.  abl.,  425,  1, 1),  N. 

Inops  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inquam^  position,  569,  V. 

Inquies^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Inscims^.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Ifisclusw.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Inseparable  preps.,  308 ;  in  compds., 
344,  6;  quant.,  594,  2. 

Inspergo,  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-npte  1. 

Instar^  defective,  134 ;  gen.  w.,  398,  4. 

Instrumental  Case,  367,  3 ;  411,  II. 
Instr.  abl.,  418  If.  Abl.  of  instru- 
ment, 420. 

Instr uo^  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 

Insuber^  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

lasitetus  w.  gen.,  p.  205,  foot-note  3;  p. 
210,  foot-note  3 ;  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Insuper  w.  ace.  or  abl.,  437,  3. 

Integer  w.  gen.,  399,  III.,  1. 

Intensives,  336. 

Inter  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Inter  w.  ace,  433  ;  433, 1.  ;  for  ^en., 
397,  3,  N.  3;  w.  reciprocal  force, 
448,  N.  Inter  w.  ger.,  p.  315,  foot- 
note 5. 


Interchange  of  vowels  and  consonants, 
28;  29. 

Intercludo^  constr.,  p.  198,  foot-note  1. 

Intercns  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Literdiu^  interdius^  interdum^  304,  I., 
2. 

Intered,  304,  IV. ^  N.  2. 

Interest,  dat.  ot^  384,  1,  2).  Kom. 
computation  ot  interest,  646,  3,  3). 

Interest^  constr.,  406,  III.  ;  408. 

Interior^  compar.,  166. 

Interjections,  312 ;  556 ;  557 ;  w.  voc., 
369,  1 ;  w.  ace,  381,  N.  2;  w.  dat., 
381,  N.  3.3);  389,  N.  2. 

Internal  Object,  371,  I.,  2. 

Interne^  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Interrogative  pronouns,  188;  454. 
Inter,  conjs.,  311,  8;  555,  VIII. 
Inter,  sentences,  351.  Inter,  words, 
351,  1.  Double  questions,  353. 
Intoi".  sentences  w.  potent,  subj., 
486,  II. ;  in  indir.  disc,  523,  II.  In- 
direct questions,  528,  2 ;  529,  I. 

InterrogO  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Interval,  abl.  of,  430. 

Intimus^  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Intrd  w.  ace,  433  ;  433,  I. 

Intransitive  verbs,  193,  II. ;  195,  II., 
1 ;  372,  III.,  N.  3 ;  impers.  passive, 
465,  1. 

Intro-  in  compds.,  594,  8. 

Intus  w.  abl.,  437,  2. 

-inns,  adjs.  in,  330, 331 ;  compar.,  169, 
3.  -Inus  or  -Inus  in  adjs.,  587,  II., 
5,  w.  N.  2. 

Invddo^  constr.,  p.  202,  foot-note  1. 

Invicem^  304,  I.,  2. 

Invitus^  compar.,  167,  2;  special  use 
of  dat.,  387,  N.  3.  Invltus  w.  force 
of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

7o,  interj.,  312,  2. 

-id,  verbs  of  Conj.  III.  in,  217  ff. ; 
quant,  of  stem-syllable,  588.  -/<?, 
-io^  suffixes,  320, 11. ;  nouns  in,  324 ; 
326. 

-ion  in  prop,  names,  i  in,  577,  5,  N. 

Ionic  feet,  597,  N.  1 ;  verse,  626 ;  stan- 
za, 631,  XIII. 

-ior  in  comparatives,  162.  ~I&r,  suf- 
fix, 320.  II. 

-ios,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Ipse^  decl.,  186,  V.  ;  use,  452  ;  w.  abl. 
abs.,  434,  4,  N.  3.  Gen.  of  ipse  w. 
possessive,  398,  3. 

I^sus  for  ipse^  p.  73^  foot-note  5. 

-ir,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  4. 

Iron  age,  640,  III.,  2. 

Ironical  condition,  507,  3,  N.  1. 

Irony,  637,  V. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


407 


Irrational  time,  596, 1,  N.  2.    Irrat. 

trochee,  598,  1,  1).    Irrat.  iambus, 

598,  1,  2). 
Irregular  nouns,  127  f^.  ;  adjs.,  159. 

Irreg.   comparison,   163  fif.     Irreg. 

verbs,  289  If. 
/6^,  decl.,  186  ;  correlat.,  191 ;  use,  ^50, 

4,  N.  2 ;  451.    Is — qui,  451,  4.    £  m 

IZ,  577,  I.,  2,  (1).    /in  is,  579,  3. 
-is,  decl.  of  adjs.  in,  62,  IV.,  N.  1 ; 

of  nouns  in,  65,  1 ;   82.     Gend.  of 

nouns  in,  105 ;  107.    -Is  in  adverbs, 

304,  I.,  3,  1).     -Is  in  ace  pi.,  62; 

64  ;  67  ;  in  adverbs,  304,  II.,  1.    -Is 

or  -28  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2 ;  581, 

VIII. 
Islands,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2  ; 

constr.,  380,  2,  2) ;  412,  II.  1 ;  426, 1. 
-issim^,  -issimo,  suffixes,  p.  156, 

foot-note  9. 
-issimus,  a,  rim,  in  superlat.,  162; 

p.  J.57,  foot-not«  9. 
-isso,  verbs  in,  336,  N.  2. 
Istdc,  305,  V. 
Iste,  decl.,  186,  II.;  correlat.,  191 ;  use, 

450. 
Istic,  decl.,  186,  2. 
Istic,  304,  III.,  2 ;  305,  I. 
IstinCj  305,  III. 
Isto,  tstoc,  304,  II.,  o. 
1st  He,  304,  II.,  3  ;  305,  II. 
-it  in  Plautus  for  -it,  580,  III.,  N.  2. 
Ita,  305,  V.  ;   ita—sl,   507,  3,    N.  2. 

Meaning  of  ita,  551,  N.  2.    Ui — ita, 

w.  superlat.,  555,  II.,  1.     ^  in  ita, 

581,  III.,  3.    Ita  redundant,   636, 

III.,  7. 
Ita  que,  310,  4. 
-itas,  nouns  in,  324  ;  325  ;  ^  in,  587, 

II.,  4. 
-iter,  i  in,  587,  II.,  4. 
-itia,  nouns  in,  325. 
-ities,  nouns  in,  325,  N.  1. 
-itim,  i  in,  587,  I.,  7. 
-itimus,  adjs.  in,  330,  1. 
-itium,  nouns  in,  324. 
-ito,  frequentatives  in,  336,  II. 
-itudd,  nouns  in,  325 ;  i  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 
-itus  in  adv^erbs,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot- 
note 2  ;  587,  II.,  4.     /  in  -itus,  587, 

I.,  7. 
-in,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-ium,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  51,  5.     -lum 

in  gen.  pl.^  62 ;  63 ;  64 ;   66 ;  67. 

Nouns  in  -turn,  324 ;  327. 
-ins,  suffix,  320,  II.    Decl.  of  nouns 

in  -ius,  51,  5.     Adjs.  in  -ius,  330 ; 

331 ;  333,  5.    J  or  i  in  ius  in  gen., 

577,  I.,  3,  (3).    /  in  ius  in  prop. 

names,  577,  5,  N. 


-ivns,  adjs.  in,  333,  5 ;  i  in,  587, 1.,  6. 
-ix,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  95.    -Ix,  decl. 

of  nouns  in,  95 ;  quant,  of  increm., 

585,  IV.,  1. 


J,  j,  modifications  of  /,  i,  2,  4 ;  sound, 

7 ;  efiect  on  quantity  of  preceding 

syllable,  16,  L,  2;  576,  II. :  576,  2; 

interchanged  with  i,  28 ;  dropped, 

36,  4. 
-ja,  suffix,  320,  I. 
Jacio,  spelling  and  pronunciation  of 

compels.,  36,  4. 
Jam,  compds.  of,  w.  present,  467,  2 ; 

w.  imperf.,  469,  2. 
-jans,  suffix,  320, 1. 
Jecur,  decl.,  77,  4. 
Jocus,  plur.  jocl,  joca,  141. 
-j5r,  suffix,  320,  II. 
Joy,  force  of  adjs.   expressing,  443, 

N.  1. 
Juhar,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 
Juhed,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1 ;  in 

pass..  534,  1,  N.  1. 
Jucunaus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 

w.  supine,  547,  1. 
Judex,  aecl.,  59. 
Judicw,  constr.,  410,  II.,  1. 
Jugerum,  decl.,  136,  1.     Jugerum  as 

unit  of  measure,  648,  V. 
Jugum,  quant,  of  syllable  before  j  in 

compds.,  576,  2. 
Julian  calendar,  641. 
Jungb  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1 ;  w. 

abl.,  419.  1,  1). 
Juppiter,  decl.,  66,  3. 
Jurdtus  w.  active  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 
Jus,  decl.,  61. 
Jusjurandum,  decl.,  126. 
Jusso  forjussero,  240,  4. 
Juvenal,  versification,  630. 
Juvenis,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  3  ;  com- 
par., 168,  4. 
Juvo  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 
Juxtd  w.  accus.,  433. 

K 

« 

K  seldom  used,  2,  6. 

-ka,  suffix,  320,  1. ' 

Kartlidgo,  decl.,  66,  4. 

Kindred  words  near  each  other,  563. 

Knowing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I., 

1;  535,  I.,l,  (2). 
Knowledge,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399, 1., 

2 ;  p.  315,  foot-note  2 ;  w.  force  of 

adverbs,  443,  N.  1. 


408 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


L,  stems  in.  decl.,  GO ;  nouns  in,  decl., 
75;  gend.,  Ill;  112.  Quant,  of 
final^syllables  in  I,  579,  2  ;  580,  II. 

-la,  la,  suffixes,  320.  Nouns  in  -Za, 
321. 

Labials,  3,  II. ;  3,  N.  1, 1.,  3.  Labial 
stems,  57. 

Lacer^  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Lacrinfio  w.  accus.,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Lacus^  decl.,  117, 1,  2). 

Laedo  w.  accus.,  385,  II.,  N.  1. 

Laetiis  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Laexd^  constr.,  425,  2. 

Lampas^  decl.,  68. 

Lanjjuaffe,  Latin,  638. 

Lapis^  aecl.,  58. 

Ldr^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (1). 

Lassus^  not  compared,  169,  4. 

Latin  period,  573.  Lat.  lan^.  and 
literature,  638.  Early  Latin,  639. 
Lat.  authors,  640. 

Learning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533, 
L,  L 

Leaving,  verbs  of,  w.  two  dats.,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Lengthening  of  vowels^  20. 

-lens,  -lentils,  adjs.  m,  328. 

Le6^  decl.,  00. 

Lepus^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  3. 

Lesser  Ionic,  597,  N. ;  Archilochian, 
617,  N. ;  AsclcpiadOan,  628,  IV. ; 
Sapphic,  628,  VI.;  Alcaic,  628, 
VIII. 

Letters,  classification,  3  ;  sounds,  5  fF. 
Names  of  letters  indecl.,  128,  1. 
Tenses  in  letters,  472,  1. 

-leus,  nouns  in,  321,  N. 

Levo^  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Lex^  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

-U.  suffix,  320,  II. 

Lioens  w.  force  of  adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Liber ^  Bacchus,  libeH^  decl.,  51,  4. 
Liber,  era,  erum,  149. 

Libera,  constr.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5  ;  p. 
219,  foot-note  1. 

Libra,  648,  I. ;  divisions,  648,  I.,  1. 

Lib?'o,  constr.,  425,  2,  N.  1. 

Liceo  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Licet,  311,  4 ;  w.  subj.,  515,  III.     Ple- 
onasm w.  licet,  636,  III.,  9. 
Liger,  decl.,  66,  III.,  1. 
Liijus,  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 
Likeness,  dat.   w.  adjs.  of,  391,  I. ; 

391,  II.,  4. 
Limit,  accus.  of,  380. 
Linter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 


Liqui,  i  in,  590,  1. 

Liquid  measure,  Rom.,  648,  III. 

Liquids,  3,  II.,  4;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N.     Liquid  stems,  60. 

Lis,  decl.,  p.  38,  Ibot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

-lis,  adjs.  in,  333. 

Literature,  Lat.,  638. 

Litotes,  637,  VIlI. 

Llttera,  litterae,  132.  Litterds  dare, 
385,  1,  N. 

Litum,  i  in,  590,  1. 

-lo,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Locative,  45,  2;  48,  4;  51,  8:  66,  4; 
120,  N.  Locatives  as  adverbs,  304, 
IIL  Abl.w.  locat.,363,4,  2).  Syn- 
tax of  locat.,  367,  2;  411,  III. ;  425, 
II. ;  426,  2.     Locat.  abl.,  425,  ff. 

Loco,  constr.,  380,  N. 

LocfipUs,  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 
IIL,  3. 

Locus,  plur.,  141.  Loco,  constr.,  415, 
II.,  N.     Loco,  locls.  constr.,  425,  2. 

Logaoedic  verse,  627  n. 

Long  measure,  Rom.,  648,  IV. 

Lon^  syllables,  575.  Long  stem-syl- 
lables in  primitives,  595.  Final 
long  vowel  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
IL,  N.  3. 

Longlnquiis,  superlat.  w^anting,  168,  3. 

Longius  without  quam,  417,  1,  N.  2. 

-Is,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  90. 

Luctfyr  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Ludicer,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Ludus,  ludlj  132. 

Lues,  defective,  134. 

-lus,  -lum,  nouns  in,  321 ;  adjs.,  332. 

Lux,  without  gen.  plur.,  133, 5  ;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  v.,  2. 

Lycurgides,  ^  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  3. 

Lynx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 

Lyric  metres  of  Horace,  631 ;  index, 
632. 

M 

M  changed  to  n.  33,  4 ;  assimilated  to 

s,  34,  1,  N. ;  developing jo,  34, 1,  N. 

Stems  in  m,  60.     Prepositions  in  m. 

p.  149.  foot-note  2.     Quant,  of  final 

syllables  in  m,  579,  2 ;  580,  II.     M 

final  elided,  608,  I. 
-ma,  -ma,  suffixes,  320. 
Maereb,  constr.,  371,  IIL,  N.  1. 
Magis,  in  comparison,  170 ;  444,  2, 

notes  1  and  2.     I^'on  magis — quam, 

555,  IL,  1. 
Magnus   compared,   165.      Mdgnl, 

constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 
Major,  in  expressions  of  age,  p.  222, 

foot-note  4. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


409 


Making,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373. 
Male   compared,    306,    2.       Dat.   w. 
compds.  of  male,  384,  4,  N.  1.     ^  in 
mule,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Mdlo,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1 ;  499, 
2 ;  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  Is  in  mavis. 
581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 

Mains,  compar.,  165. 

-man,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Manifestus  w.  ^en.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Manner,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2, 3).  Abl. 
of  manner,  419,  III.  Manner  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549, 1. 

Mxuius,  gend.,  118. 

Mare,  decl.,  63  ;  63,  2.  Marl,  constr., 
425,  2. 

Margarita,  plur.,  142. 

Martial,  metres,  633,  II. 

Mds,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  quant, 
of  increm.,  585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Masculine  caesura,  611,  N. 

Mastery,  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I.,  3 ; 
verbs  of,  w.  gen.,  410.  v.,  3. 

Material  expressed  by  abl.,  415.  Ma- 
terial nouns,  39,  2,  3)  ;  plur.,  130,  2. 

Mdturus,  compar.,  163,  1,  N. 

Mdtuti/ius,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Mdxime  in  adverbial  comparison,  170. 

Mdximl,  constr.,  p.  213,  toot-note  2. 

Means,  abl.  of,  418  ;  420.  Means  ex- 
pressed by  particip.,  549,  1. 

Measure  of  difference,  abl.  of,  417,  2. 
Roman  measures,  646 ;  648. 

Mecastor,  inter j.,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Med  for  me,  184,  5. 

Medeor  w.  dat.,  385,  II.,  N.  3. 

Medial  vowels,  3,  I.,  2. 

Medius  designating  part,  440,  N.  2. 

Medius  fidius,  mmercule,  mehercules, 
inter].,  p.  152,  foot-note  4. 

Mel,  defect.,  133,  4,  N. 

Melius  w.  indicat.,  475,  5. 

Melos,  decl..  ^"^,  6. 

Members  or  complex  sentences,  348, 
N.  1. 

Meme,  for  mg,  184,  4. 

Meminl  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace, 
407 ;  w.  pres.  infin.,  537,  1. 

Memor,  decl.,  158.  Memor  w.  gen., 
p.  210,  foot-note  3.  Quant,  of  in- 
crem. o^  memor,  585,  II.,  3. 

Memordbilis  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 

-men,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  nouns  in,  327. 

Mendicus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Me?isa,  decl.,  48. 

Mensis.  deck.  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

-mento,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  1. 

-mentum,  nouns  in,  327. 

Mepte  for  m£,  184,  5. 

Merces,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3, 

.18 


Merldies,  gend.,  123 :  defect.,  130, 1, 4). 

Messis,  deck,  62,  III.,  1. 

-met,  forms  in,  184,  3;  185,  N.  2. 

Metaphor,  637,  II. 

Metathesis,  635,  5. 

Metonymy,  637,  III. 

Metre,  601,  N.  3. 

Metrical  equivalents,  598.  Metr.  name 

of  verse,  603. 
Metud,  constr.,  385,  1;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 
Meus,  decl. J  185,  N.  1. 
Ml  for  mihi,  184. 
Middle  voice,  465. 
Miles,  deck,  58. 

Militia,  deck,  48,  4;  constr.,  426,  2. 
Mllle,  deck,  159,  I. ;  use,  174,  4;  178. 

Mllia,  masc.  by  synesis,  461,  2. 
Million  sesterces,  how  denoted,  647, 
IV.  '        ' 

-min,  suffix,  320,  II. 
-miniaspers.  end., p.  118,  foot-note  3. 
Minimi,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 
-mino  in  imperat.,  240,  5. 
Minor  caesura,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Minor,  m^inus,  without  quam,  417,  N. 
2.     Minoris,  constr.,  405 ;   p.   213, 
foot-note  2. 
Minus,  minime,  as  negatives,  552,  3. 

Nd)i  minus — quam,  555,  II. ,  1. 
Mirificus,  compar.,  164,  N. 
Miror  w.  ace,  371,   III.,  N.  1 ;   w. 
^en.,  p.  217,  foot-note  5 ;   p.  310, 
foot-note  2. 
Mlrum  w.  quantum,  305,  N.  4. 
Mir  us,  not  compared,  169,  4. 
Mis  for  mel,  184,  5. 
Misceo  w.  dat.,  385,  3;  p.  201,  foot- 
note 1 ;  w.  ace.   and  dat.,  p.  201, 
foot-note  2  ;  w.  abk,  419,  1,  1),  (2). 
Miser,  deck,  150,  N. 
Misereor,  miserescS,  w.  gen.,  406.  Mis- 
erescit,  miseretur,  constr.,  410,  IV., 
N.  1. 
Miseret,  constr.,  409,  III. 
Mitto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
-mo,  sufikx,  320,  II. 
Moderor,  constr.,  385,  1. 
Modifiers,  357  ff.    Position  of  modi- 
fiers,   of  nouns,    565;    adjs.,  566; 
verbs,  567 ;  adverbs,  568. 
Modius,  648,  II. 

Modo,  311,  3.  Modo,  modo  ne,  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  6.  Modo  w. 
subj.  in  condit.,  513,  I.  Non  modo 
— sed  etiam  (venim  etiam),  554,  I., 
6.  0  final  in  nwdo  and  compds. ,  581 , 
IL,  1. 
Modus,  circumlocutions  w. ,  636,  IIL, 
10. 


410 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


Molestus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Molossus,  633,  111.,  1,  N. 
-mon,  suffix,  320,  II. 
Jl/o7ie^,  constr. ,  374,  2;  p.  193,  foot- 
note 3  :  410, 1. ,  2 ;  p.  274,  luot-note  1. 

Money,  Jioman,  646  If. 

-monii;,  -moniOj  suffixes,  p.  157, 
foot-note  1 ;  mOma^  nouns  in,  327. 

-mouium,  nouns  in,  327. 

Monoeolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Monometer,  603,  N.  2. 

Monosyllabic  preps,  repeated,  636, 
III.,  6. 

Monosyllables,  ouant.,  579.  Mono- 
syllables at  end  of  line,  613,  N.  2. 

Months,  Koman,  641;  642,  III.,  2; 
names  of,  originally  adjs.,  p.  36, 
foot-note  2;  gender,  42,  I.,  2; 
names  of,  in  -her.  decl.,  65,  1,  !)• 

Moods,  196.  Mood  signs,  244  ff.  In- 
die., 466  ff.  Subj.,  477  ff. ;  490  ff. 
Imperat.,  487  ff.  Moods  in  subord. 
clauses,  490  ff. ;  in  condit.  sentences, 
506  ff. ;  in  concess.  clauses,  514  ff. ; 
in  causal  clauses,  516  ff. ;  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ff.  ;  in  iudir.  disc, 
523  ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses,  529.  In- 
finit.,532ff. 

Morae  or  times,  597. 

Mos.  mores^  132. 

Motion  to,  how  expressed,  384,  8, 1) ; 
385,  4,  1) ;  386,  3. 

Moveo  w.  abl.,  414,  II. ;  w.  subj.,  p. 
274,  foot-note  2. 

-ms,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  88. 

Mulciber,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

MuUi,  indef.  num.,  175,  N.  3. 

MuUimodls^  304,  II.,  1,  N. 

Multiplication,  how  expressed,  174,  2, 

2). 
Multiplicatives.  173,  1. 
MultitudO  w.  plur.  verb.  461, 1. 
MuUus^  compar.,  165 ;  ^lur.,  175,  N.  3. 
Mus^  decl.,  64 ;  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 
Mutes,  3,  II. ,  5. 
Muto^  constr.,  422,  N.  2. 

N 

N  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2 ;  to  m,  34, 

.     3 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ;  36,  5,  3). 

Stems  m  n,  60.    Decl.  of  nouns  m 

n,  76  ;  gend.,  113.     Quant,  of  final 

syllables  in  n^  580,  II.,  w.  notes  1 

and  2.^ 
-nai,  -na,  suffixes,  320. 
Nam,  310, 5 ;  w.  emphasis,  351, 4,  N.  1. 
Name,  dat.  of,  387,  r^.  1 ;  gen.  of,  387, 

N.  2.    Name  of  verse,  603. 
Names,  Eoman,  331,  N.  3 ;  439,  4,  N. ; 


649.    Names  of  towns,  constr.,  380, 
II. ;  412,  II. ;  425,  II.  ;  428. 

Namque,  310,  5 ;  554,  V.,  2. 

Nasals,  3,  II.,  2;  developing  vowels, 
29,  N. 

Ndtdlis,  ndtdles,  132. 

Natus  w.  abl.,  415,  II. 

Nauci,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 

Ndvis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Nd  shortens  preceding  vowel,  p.  37, 
foot-note  2. 

'Ne,  interrog.  particle,  310,  2,  N. ;  311, 
8;  in  questions,  351,  1  and  2;  m 
double  questions,  353, 1 :  in  indir. 
questions,  529, 1  and  3.  Position  of 
-ne^  569,  III.,  4.  E  elided  before 
consonant,  608, 1.,  N.  2. 

Ne.  311,  4  and  5;  552;  w.  subj.  of 
desire,  483,  3  ;  489,  3;  w.  imperat., 
488  ;  w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497 j  II. ; 

498,  III.,  notes  1  and  2 ;   omitted, 

499,  2.  Ne  in  concessions^  515,  III. 
Ne  non,  552,  1.  Ne—quidem,  553, 
2;  569,  III.,  2.  Ne  or  ne  as  prefix, 
5_94,  2. 

-ne,  nouns  in,  322,  N. 

Nearness,  dat.  w.  adjs.   of,  391,  I.; 

gen.,  391,  4. 
Nee,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2.    Nee— nee  (ne- 

q\ie),nec—et  (que),  et—nec,  554, 1., 5. 

Position  of  nee  in  poetry,  569,  III., 

N.    E  in  nee.  579,  3. 
Necessdrius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Necessary,  dat.  w.  adjs.   signifying, 

391, 1. 
Necesse  est,  constr.,  502, 1. 
Necne,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8  ;  353,  2,  N. 

3  ;  529,  3,  2). 
Nectar,  quant,  of  incrcm.,  585,  I.,  4, 

(1). 
Necto  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 

Nedum  w.  subj.,  483,  3,  N. ;  e  in,  594, 

2,  N.  2. 
Needing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414, 1. 
Nlfas.  defect.,  134;  w.  sup.,  547,  1. 
Negatives,  552;  w.   subj.  of  desire, 

483,  3.     Two  neg.,  553.     Gen.  neg., 

553,  1  and  2.     Position  of  neg.,  569, 

IV.,  1. 
Nl'm,  use,  457, 1 ;  followed  by  quln, 

p.  278,  foot-note  3.    J*  in  ii^nw^  594, 

2,  N.  2. 
Nlnu,  u  in.  p.  340,  foot-note  1. 
Nepos,  decl.,  58. 
Nequam,  indecl.,  159,   I.  ;  compar., 

165,  N.  2 ;  ^  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Nequdquam,  I  in,  594,  2,  N.  2. 
Neque,  310, 1 ;  554, 1.,  2.    Neque—ne- 

que,  553,  2;  554,  I.,  5.    Neque— et, 

et — neque,  554,  I.,  5. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


411 


M—quidem,  553,  2;  569,  III.,  2. 

Nequlquam,  n^quitia,  I  in,  594,  2,  N. 
2.^ 

Nereis,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Nescio  qiiis,  qui,  191,  N. ;  455,  2.  Ne- 
scid  w.  interrog.  adv. ,  305,  N .  3.  Ne- 
scio quis,  quomodo,  w.  indie,  529,  5, 
3).    Nesclo  an,  529,  3,  N.  2. 

Nescius  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Neu,  see  nlve. 

-neus,  adjs.  in,  329. 

Neuter,  decl.,  151, 1. 

Neuter  nom.,  acc.^  and  voc.  pi.,  46,  2 
1).  Neuter  by  signification,  42,  N. 
by  ending,  Decl.  II.,  53  ;  Decl.  III. 
Ill ;  Decl.  IV.,  118.  Neuter  pron 
or  adj.,  as  cognate  ace,  371,  II. ;  375 
w.  part,  gen.,  397,  3  ;  in  pred.,  438 
4.    Om  merem.  of  neut.^  585,  II.,  1 

Neve,  neu,  311,  5 ;  w.  subj.  of  desire 
483,  3  ;  w.  imperat.,  488 ;  w.  subj.  of 
purpose,    497,   1,    N.      Neve — neve. 
552,2.     J'in  w^z.v,  594,  2,  N.  2. 

Nex,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Nf  lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16,  N. 
2. 

Nl,  311,  3;  in  condit,  507  ff.  Nl  = 
*but,'  'except,'  507,  3,  N.  3.  Nl 
for  Tie,  552,  1. 

-ni,  suffix,  320. 

Nignt,  Eom.  division  of,  645 ;  645,  1. 

Nmil,  defect.,  134;  for  nbn,  457,  3. 
Nihil  aliud  nisi,  nihil  aliud  quam, 
555,  III.,  1. 

Nihill,  constr.,  404,  N.  2. 

Nimis  w.  genit.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Nimium  quantum,  305,  N.  4. 

Nisi,  311,  3 ;  in  condit.,  507  ff.  Nisi 
=  'but,'  *  except,'  507^  3,  N.  3:  = 

\isi 
ihil 


nisi,  581,  1.,  1. 
NUor,  constr.,  425, 1,  1),  N. ;  498,  II., 

N.  1. 
Nix,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  66 ;  w. 

short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 
-no,  sufiix,  320,  II. 
Nolo,  constr.,  499,  2 ;  p.  310,  foot-note 

1.  Noll,  nollte,  in  prohibitions,  489, 
1).    /in  nolite,  etc.,  586,  III.,  4. 

Nomen  w.  dat.,  387,  N.  1;  w.  gen., 
387,  N.  2.  Nomine  w.  gen.  of  crime, 
410,  II.,  1.  Nomen,  in  name  of  a 
Eom.  citizen,  649. 

Nominative,  neut.  pi.  in  adjs.,  158,  1. 
Syntax  of  nom.,  368 ;  two  nom.,  373, 

2.  Nom.  for  voc,  369,  2.  Nom.  in 
exclamations,  381,  N.  3,  2).  -Es  in 
nom.  sing.,   581,  VI.,  1;   -is,  581, 


VIIL,  2 ;  -us,  581,  IX.,  1 ;  in  plur., 
581,  IX.,  2. 

Non,  p.  145,  foot-note  2;  552.  Non, 
modo  non,  non  solum  non,  552,  2. 
Nm  solum  (non  modo  or  non  tan- 
tum) — sed  etiam  (verumetiam),  554, 
I..  5.  Noti  minus — quam,  non  ma- 
gu — quam,  555 j  II.,  1.  Non  quo, 
quod^  quln,  quia,  w.  subj.,  51G,  2. 
Non  w.  gen.  negat.,  553,  1.  Posi- 
tion of  7idn,  569,  1 V. 

NOndum,  555, 1.,  1. 

Nones,  642,  I.,  2. 

Nonne,  311,  8 ;  351, 1  and  2. 

Nos  for  ego,  noster  for  meus,  446,  N.  2. 

Nostras,- decl.,  185,  N.  3. 

Nostri,  nostrum,  446,  N.  3. 

Notus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Nouns,  etymol.,  39  ff. ;  gend.,  40  ff. ; 
pers.  and  num.,  44 ;  cases,  45  ;  decl., 
46 ff.;  defect.,  122;  129 ff.;  indecl., 
128 ;  hcteroclitcs,  135  ft". ;  hetero- 
geneous, 141  ff.  Syntax,  362  ff. ; 
agreement,  362  ff. ;  general  view  ot 
cases,  365  ff. ;  nom.,  368 ;  voc/,  369 ; 
ace,  370  ff. ;  dat.,  382  ff. ;  gen.,  393 
ff. ;  abl.,  367;  411  ff. ;  w.  j)reps., 
432  ff.  Nouns  as  adjs.,  441,  3.  Po- 
sition of  modifiers  of  nouns,  565. 

Novus,  compar.,  167,  2. 

Nox,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  4. 

Noxius  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1 ; 
w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

-ns,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3  ;  90.  Ns 
lengthens  preceding  vowel,  16, 
N.  2. 

Nt  dropped,  p.  19,  foot-note  9  ;  short- 
ens preceding  vowel,  p.  37,  foot- 
note 2. 

-nu,  suffix,  320. 

Nubecula,  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

Nuhes,  decl.,  62. 

Nuhd  w.  dat.,  385,  N.  3. 

NudO,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Nullus,  diQci.,  151, 1 ;  for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1 ;  use,  457,  2 ;  for  non,  457, 
3.  Nullus  followed  by  qum,  p.  278, 
foot-note  3. 

Num,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8;  351,  1;  in 
indir.  quest. ^  529,  II.,  1,  N.  3. 

-num,  nouns  in,  327. 

Number,  44 ;  in  verbs,  199.  Gen.  in 
descriptions  of  number,  419^  2,  1). 

Numerals,  171  ff.  ;  adjs.,  172 ft; ;  decl., 
175  ff. ;  symbols,  180 ;  adverbs,  181 ; 
in  compounding  numbers,  174,  3. 
Numerals  w.  gen.,  397,  2.  Numer- 
als in  dates,  642,  III.,  1. 

Nummns,  647. 

iV%;ic,  304, 1.,4;  305,  IV. 


412 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


413 


Nuntior^  constr.,  534,  N.  1,  (2). 
Nuper^  304,  IV.,  N.  2 ;  compar.,  306, 4. 
-nus,  adjs.  in,  329. 
JVusquam  w.  gen.,  397,  4. 

O 

O,  0,  sound,  5 ;  10 ;  11.  (5 final  short- 
ened, 21,  2,  3).  (?-nouns,  51.  Decl. 
of  nouns  in  6,  6,  60,  4 ;  72 ;  quant, 
of  increm..  585,  II.,  5,  (2);  gend., 
99;  100.  Num.  adverbs  in  -o,  181, 
N.  2.  Origin  of  o  final  in  verbs,  p. 
118,  foot-note  5.  Adverbs  in  -d, 
304,  II.,  1  and  2.     Superlat.  adverbs 


1,  2,  and  5 ;  w.  ace,  381,  N.  2._  O 
8i  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  O  in 
hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

-O,  -o,  suffixes,  320,  II.  Nouns  in  -6, 
326   2. 

Ob  in  compds.,  344,  5;  in  compds. 
w.  dat.,  386.  Ob  w.  ace.,  433; 
433,  I. ;  w.  gcr.,  p.  315,  foot-note  5. 

Obeying,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385, 1. 

Obiter,  304, 1.,  2. 

Object,  direct,  371 ;  external,  371, 1., 
1  ;  internal,  371,  I.,  2.  Object 
omitted,  371,  III.,  N.  4.  Infin.  or 
clause  as  object,  371,  IV. ;  540,  N. 
Indir.  object,  382  ff.  Object  clauses 
of  purpose,  498  ;  of  result,  501,  II. 

Objective  compds.,  343,  II.  Object, 
gen.,  396,  111. 

Oblique  cases,  45,  1  ;  use  of,  370  ff. 

Oblluiscor  w.  gen.,  406,  II. ;  w.  ace, 

407. 
Oboedilm  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  3. 

Obviam,  304,  I.,  2. 

Occlsit  for  occlderif^  240,  4. 

Occupatio,  p.  373,  foot-note  2. 

Odor,  compar.,  166. 

Oeto,  0  final  in,  581,  IV.,  2. 

Oe,  sound,  6  ;  12. 

Oedipus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 

Ofendo,  constr.,  385,  II.,  K.  1. 

Oh^,  interj.,  312,  3 ;  6  in,  577,  I.,  4 ;  e 

in,  581,  IV.,  4. 
Oi,  sound,  6,  1 ;  12, 1. 
-ois,  0  in,  587, 1.,  3  ;  577,  5,  N. 
-oins  in  prop,  names,  o  in,  577,  o, 

N. 
-ola,  0  in,  587,  II.,  3. 
-5lentus,  0  in,  58*7,  IV.,  1. 
Oleo  w.  ace,  371,  HI.,  N.  1. 
Ollus,  olle,  for  ille,  p.  73,  foot-note  1, 

(2). 
-olum,  -olus,  0  in,  587,  II.,  3. 


Omission  of  consonants,  36  ;  of  Ord  in 
adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 

Omnis,  gen.  of,  w.  possessives,  398,  3. 

-on,  -on,  suliixes,  320,  II. ;  -on  in 
Greek  gen.  plur.,  68,  4.  Quant,  of 
increm.  of  nouns  in  -on,  585,  II.,  5, 
J2). 

-ona,  0  in,  587, 1.,  5. 

-on€  in  patronymics,  322,  N. ;  o  in, 

587,  I.,  3. 
Onero,  constr.,  p.  225,  foot-note  3. 
-oni,  0  in,  587,  I.,  8.^ 
Onomatopoeia,  637,  XI.,  5. 
-5nus,  0  in,  587,  I.,  5. 
Open  vowel,  3,  I.,  1. 
Opera,  operae,  132.     Operam  dd  w. 

subj.,  p.  274,  foot-note  2. 
Oplnnis,  superlat.  wanting,  168,  3. 
Oportct,  constr.,  502,  1 ;  537,  1. 
Opposing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 
Ops,  dec!.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3 ;  133,  1. 
Optative  in  fut.,  and  in  pres.  subj.,  p. 

117,  foot-note  4.   Optat.  subj.,  484, 1. 
Optiindt'es,  decl.,  64,  2,  4). 
Optimus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Opto,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  1. 
Opus, '  work,'  deck,  61.  Opus  'need,'' 

defect.,  134;  constr.,  414,  iV. ;  w. 

sup.,  547,  1.      Opus  est  w.  subj., 

502,  1. 
-5r,  -or,  suffixes,  320,  II.    Nouns  in 

-or,  327.     O  shortened  in  -or,  21,  2, 

2).     Gen.  of  nouns  in  -or,  99,  101. 

-Or  in  Plautus  for -or,  580,  111.,  N. 

2.     Quant,  of  increm.  of  nouns  in 

-or,  585,  II.,  5,  (1). 
Oratio    Obliqua,   see  Indirect  Dis- 
course.    Oratio  recta,  622,  1. 
Orbis,  deck,  62,  IV. 
Orbo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Ojdinal  numbers,  172;  174;  deck,  179. 
-orius,  0  in,  587,  III.^  1. 
Orno,  constr.,  p.  225,  loot-note  3. 
Oro  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2 ;  w.  subj.,  p. 

274,  foot-note  1.      Oro  omitted  in 

adjurations,  569,  II.,  3. 
Orpheus,  deck,  68. 
Orthography,  1,  I. ;  2  ff. 
Ortusw,  abl.,  415,  II. 
-orus,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  169,  3. 
_  0  in  -orus.  587,  I.,  6. 
Os,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  II.,  1. 
Os,  ossis,  deck,  p.  38,  foot-note  4;  o 

in,  579,  3. 
-OS,  suffix,  320,  II.      Sound  of  -os, 

11, 1.    Greek  neuters  in  -os,  68,  6. 

Beck  of  nouns  in  -os,  -os,  83 ;  133, 

4,  N. ;   gend.,  99 ;   102.      Os  or  os 

final,  580,  III. ;  581,  VII. 


Ossua,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

Ostrea,  plur.,  142. 

-5S11S,  adjs.  in,  328;  dm,  587,  I.,  6. 

-Otis,  0  in,  587,  I.,  3. 

-otiis,  oin,  587,  I.,  7. 

Ovid,  versification,  630. 

Owing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  533,  I.,  1. 

-ox,  -6x,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  96. 

Oxymoron,  637,  XL,  5. 


P  changed  to  b,  33,  2 ;  to  m,  33,  3,  N. ; 
developed  bv  m,  34,  1 ,  N. 

Paene  w.  perf.  ind.,  471,  2;  w.  hist, 
tenses  of  indie,  511,  1,  N.  4. 

Paenitet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Palam  w.  abk,  437,  2. 

Palatals,  3,  II.,  N.  1,  L,  1. 

Palus  for  pal  as,  581,  IX..,  1,  N. 

Paluster,aGQ\.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Panthus,  voe,  54,  N.  4. 

Papae,  interj.,  312,  2. 

Par,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and 
3;  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 1.,  4,  (1). 

Paraleipsis,  637,  XL,  2. 

Parasitic  ii,  5,  4. 

Pardoning,  diit.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

Parlns,  gen.  plur.,  p.  38,  foot-note  2. 

Parentage  expressed  by  abk,  415. 

Parenthetical  clauses  m  indir.  disc, 
524,  2,  1) ;  in  indir.  clauses,  529,  II., 
N.  1,  2). 

Paries,  es  in,  581,  VI.,  1. 

Paris,  deck,  68. 

Paroemiac  verse,  604,  N.  2. 

Paronomasia,  637,  XL,  7. 

Pars,  ace,  64,  N.  2.  Pars, partis,  132. 
Pars  in  fractions,  174,  1.  Parte, 
partibus,  constr.,  425,  2.  Pars  w. 
plur.  verb,  461,  1. 

Particeps  w.  gen.,  p.  210^  foot-note  3. 

Participation,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399, 1., 
3 ;  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  3. 

Pakticiples,  200,  I V. ;  endings,  248. 
Particip.  in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV. 
Agreement  of  particip.,  438, 1 ;  460, 
1.  Particip.  for  innn^  535,  I.,  4. 
Use  of  particip.,  548  ff. ;  denoting 
time,  cause,  manner,  means,  549, 1 ; 
condit.,  concess.,  549,  2;  purpose, 
549,  3 ;  for  relat.  clause,  549,  4 ;  for 
prin.  clause  J  549,  5 ;  w.  negat.,  549, 
Is^  1.  Particip.  rendered  by  noun, 
549   N.  2. 

Particles,  302  ff. ;  adverbs,  303  ff. ; 
preps.,  307;  308;  conjs.,  309  ff . ; 
mterjections,  312.  Syntax  of  parti- 
cles, 551  ff. ;  adverbs,  551  ff.     In- 


terrog.  particles,  p.  152,  foot-note  3 ; 
351,  1 ;  555,  8.  -^in  particles,  581, 
III.,  3. 

Partim,  304,  I.,  1;  w.  gen.,  p.  209, 
foot-note  3.  Partim — partim,  for 
pars— pars,  461,  5. 

Partitive  apposition,  364.  Part,  gen., 
396,  IV. ;  397. 

Parts  of  speech,  38. 

Partus,  deck,  117,  1,  2). 

Parum  w.  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3. 

Parvus,  compar.,  165.  Parvl,  constr., 
p.  213.  foot-note  2. 

Passer,  deck,  60. 

Passive  Voice^  195,  II. ;  impers.,  195, 
II.,*  1.  Ptissive  constr.,  464 ;  534, 
1.    Passive  like  middle,  465. 

Pamis,  648,  IV.,  N. 

Pastor,  pater,  deck,  60. 

Paterfamilias,  deck,  126. 

Patior,  constr.,  p.  310,  N.  1. 

Patrials,  331,  N.  1 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  IL,  5. 

Patronymics,  322. 

Paucl,  defect.,  159,  IL 

Pause,  caesura!,  602. 

Pax,  defect.,  133,  5. 

Pecu,  deck,  p.  50,  foot-note  1. 

Peculiarities,  in  conjugat.,  235  ff. ; 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  495 ;  in  expressions 
of  purpose^  499 ;  of  result,  502.  Pe- 
culiarities in  Rom.  calendar,  642. 

Pecus  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 3. 

Pedester,  deck,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Pelagus,  deck,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Penalty,  how  expressed,  410,  III. 

Penates,  deck,  64,  2,  4). 

Penes  w.  ace,  433 ;  es  in,  581,  VL,  2. 

Peninsulas,  constr.  of  names  of,  380, 
IL,  2,  2). 

Pentameter,  603,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  614. 

Penthemimeral  caesura,  p.  356,  foot- 
note 4. 

Penthemimeris,  597,  N.  2.         ' 

Penxis,  gend.,  118,  (2). 

Per  in  compds.,  170,  1;  344,  5;  w. 
ace,  372.  Per  w.  ace,  433 ;  433, 1. ; 
denoting  agency,  415,  L,  1,  N.  1 ; 
manner,  419,  lit.,  N.  3.  Per  sB,  452, 
1,  N.  Position  of  per  in  adjura- 
tions, 569,  IL,  3.     Em  per,  579,  3. 

Perceiving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  I. 

Percontor^w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Perfect  Tense,  197  ;  198.  Perf.  sys- 
tem, 222,  II.  Perfect  stems,  252"  ff. 
Perf.  wantinor,  262,  N.  2  •  272,  N.  2  ; 
282;  284,  N.  2.  Perf.  w.  pref. 
meaning,  297, 1. ,  2.  Syntax  of  pers.^ 
indie,  471 ;  subj.,  481  ;  in  subj.  of 


414 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


desire^  483,  2 ;  in  potent,  subj.,  485, 
N.  1 ;  in  prohibitions,  489,  3).  Perf. 
in  seq.  of  tenses,  402 ;  493 ;  495 ; 
49G,  II.  Perf.  in  condition,  607, 
11.;  509;  511,  1;  511,  2,  N. ;  513, 
N.  1.;  in  concess.,  515,  II.,  2;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1 ;  520,  N.  1 ; 
in  indir.  disc,  525,  1  ;  527,  II. :  527, 
III.,  N.  2.  Perf.  mfin.,  537.  Perf. 
particip.,  550*  rendered  by  verbal 
noun,  549, 3,  N.  2.  -Is  in  perf.  subj., 
581,  VII J. ,  5.  Quant,  of  pen.  of 
dissyllabic  perfects,  590.  Quant,  of 
first  two  syllables  of  trisyllabic  re- 
duplicated perfects,  591. 
Perhibeo)\  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Pericles^  decl.,  G8. 

Perlculum  est  w.  subj.,  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 
Period,  Lat.,   573.      Periods  of  Lat. 

literature,  640. 
Periphrastic  conju^Kit.,  233;  234;  use, 
466,  N.;  p.  261,  foot-note  4  ;  476,  1 ; 
in  condit.  sentences,  511,  2.    Peri- 
phrast.  fut.  infin.,  537,  3. 
Perltus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3; 

of  gcr.,  p.  315,  foot-note  3. 
Permisceo  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Perniciosus  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Person  of  nouns,  44 ;  verbs,  199 ;  in 

indir.  disc,  526. 
Personal  pron.,  183, 1 ;  184*  use,  446; 
reflexive  use,  448 ;  449.     Pers.  end- 
in.crs  of  verbs,  247.     Pers.  constr.  in 
indir.  questions,   529,  6;   in  pass, 
voice,  634^  1. 
Personification,  637,  IX. 
Persuading,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 
Pertaedet^  pertaesiim  est,  constr.,  410, 

IV.,  notes  1  and  3. 
Pes,  Bs  in  compds.,  581,  VI.,  1.     Pes 

as  unit  of  measure,  648,  IV. 
Peto,  constr.,  374,  2,  N.  4. 
Phalaecian  verse,  629,  I. 
Pherecratic  verse,  628,  II.  and  IV.-VI. 
Phocais,  a  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 
Phonetic  Changes,  19  ff.      Phonet. 

decay,  p.  12,  foot-note  1. 
Phryx,  decl.,  68. 
Phff,  312,  4. 

Plffet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 
P^li,  constr.,  p.  213,  foot-note  3. 
Pix  wants  gen.  plur.,  133,  5  ;  w.  short 

increm..  p.  343,  foot-note  2. 
Place,  adverbs  of,  305,  I.,  IT.,  and 
III. ;  305,  N.  2,  1).  Endings  of 
designations  of  place,  323.  Constr. 
w.  verbs  meaning  to  place,  380.  N. 
Place  whither,  380;  where,  dat., 
385.  4,  4);   abl.,  425;   locat.,  425, 


II. ;   426  ;   whence,  412.      Adjs.  of 
place  for  Eng.  adverbs,  443,  IN.  2. 

Plautus,  quantity  of  syllables  in,  578, 
N.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  2-4;  metres, 
633^  III.  ' 

Pleasing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

Pleblcula,  fonnation,  p.  159,  foot- 
note 1. 

Ptehs,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 

Plenty,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V. ; 
421,  II.  ;  421,  N.  1 ;  w.  adjs.  of, 
421,  II.  »  J         > 

PUnus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 
Pleonasm,  636,  III. 
Pluperfect,    197;    222,   II.      Plup. 
indie  J  472 ;  476,  2 ;  in  seq.  of  tenses, 


tenses,  493;  495,  I.;  496,  II.,  (2); 
in  condit.,  507,  III.;  509,  N.  3; 
510 ;  513,  N.  1 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II., 
3  ;  in  temp,  clauses,  518,  1 ;  519,  2, 
N.  1 ;  520,  II. ;  521,  II.,  2 ;  in  indir. 
disc,  527,  2  ;  527,  II.  and  III. ;  527, 

Plural,   44  ;    wanting,    ISO.      Plur. 

for  sing.,  130,  3  ;  446,  N.  2.     Plur. 

w.  change  of  meaning,  132.  -E  in 
Greek  plur.,  581,  111.,  1.    -/«  in 

plur.,  581,  VIII.,  1. 
PCurimi,  indef  num.,  175,  N.  3  ;  gen. 

of  price,  p.  213,  foot-note  2. 
Plus,  165,  JS^.  1 ;  without  quam,  417, 

1,  N.   2.     Plfiris,  constr.,  p.   213, 

foot-note  2 ;  405.    Quant,  of  increm. 

of  plus,  585,  v.,  2. 
Poetical  dat.,  380,  4  ;  385,  4;  388,  4. 
Pollux,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  2. 
Polypus,  u  in,  581,  IX.,  3,  N. 
Polysyndeton,  636,  III.,  1. 
PondO,  648,  I. 
POne^,  ace,  433. 
PonO,  constr.,  380,  N.      0  in  'posui. 

posit um,  592,  2. 
Par,  insep.  prep.,  308.     Por  for  port, 

344,  6. 
Porticus,  gcnd.,  118,  (1). 
Portus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 
Posed  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 
Position,  syllables  when  loner  by,  p. 

338,  foot-note  3.  o     ^  »  t- 

Positive,  160 ;  wanting,  166.     Pos.  for 

compar.,  444,  2,  N.  3. 
Possessive  pronouns,  185 ;  w.  rren., 

363,4,1);  398,3;  lor  gen..  396,  II., 

N. ;  401,  ^.  3  ;  w.  refert  and  interest, 

408,  I.,  2.*   Use  of  poss.  pron.,  447  ; 

refiex,448;449.  Possessive  compds., 

343,  III.     Possessive  gen.,  396,  I. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


415 


Possessor,  dat.  of,  387. 

Ihssum,  in  conclus.,  511,  1,  N.  2;  w. 
pres.  infin.,  537,  1. 

Post  in  compds.,  344,  5 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Post,  denoting  interval  of  time,  430. 
Postw,  ace,  433;  433,  I. 

Post-classical  period,  640,  III. 

Posted,  304,  IV.,  N.  2;  in- series,  554, 
I.,  N.  4. 

Postedquam,  311,  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
518. 

Posterns,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Posticus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Postis,  decl.,  62,  IV. 

Postvfhodum,  304,  I.,  2. 

Postpositive,  554,  III.,  4;  554,  V.,  3. 

Postquam  in  temp,  clauses,  518;  w. 
perf.  indie,  p.  260,  foot-note  2. 

Postrenio  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Postrlmm,  force  of,  440,  N.  2 ;  442,  N. 

Postridie  w.  gen.,  398^  5 ;  w.  ace,  437, 
1.  Postridie  quam  m  temp,  clauses, 
518,  N.  3.  E  in  postridie,  p.  341, 
foot-note  2. 

Postulo,  constr.,  374,  2 ;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 1. 

Potlns  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Potential  subj.,  485;  486;  in  declar. 
sentences,  486,  I. ;  in  interrog.  sen- 
tences, 486,  II. ;  in  subord.  clauses, 
486,  III. 

Potior  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3;  w.  abl., 
421,  I.;  w.  ace,  421,  N.  4;  in 
gerund,  constr.,  544,  N.  5. 

Potus  w.  act.  meaning,  257,  N.  2. 

Prae  in  compds.,  170,  1 ;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Prae  w.  abl.,  434;  434,  I.     Quant. 


Praecvrro,  constr.,  p.  202, foot-note  1. 

Praeditus,  constr.,  420,  N.  1,  4). 

P'aenomen,  649  ;  abbreviated,  649, 1. 

Praesente  w.  plur.,  438,  6,  N. 

Praesto,  praestolor,  constr.,  p.  202, 
foot-note  1. 

Praeter  in  compds.  w.  ace,  372.  Prae- 
terw.  ace,  433;  433,  I. 

Praetered  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 

Praeut,  311,  2. 

Predicate,  356,  2  ;  simple,  360 ;  com- 
plex, 361 ;  modified,  361, 1.  Pred. 
nouns,  300,  N.  1;  362;  for  dat., 
390,  N.  2.  Pred.  adjs.,  300,  N.  1 ; 
438,  2.  Pred.  ace,  373,  1.  Pred. 
gen.,  401  flf. ;  varieties,  402:  verbs 
with,  403  ft'. ;  pred.  gen.  of  price, 
404;  405.  Pred.  abl.,  421,  N. 
4.  Pred.  after  infin.,  536,  2.  Infin. 
as  pred.,  539,  I.    Predicates  com- 


pared, 535, 1.,  6.  Position  of  pred., 
560. 

Predicative  roots,  314, 1. 

Prepositions,  307;  insep.,  308;  in 
compds.,  344,  5  and  6.  Compds. 
w^  ace,  372;  w.  two  aces.,  376;  w. 
dat.,  386.  Preps,  in  expressions  of 
time,  379,  1^  429,  1  and  2;  430; 
of  place,  380 ;  412 ;  425 ;  of  motion 
or  direction,  384,  3,  1) ;  denoting 
for,  384,  3,  3) ;  of  agency,  388.  2. 
*Preps.  alter  adjs.,  391,  II.,  1  and  3. 
Prep,  with  obj.  for  obj.  gen.,  396, 
III.,  N.  1 ;  for  part,  gen.,  397,  3,  N. 
3;  for  gen.  w.  adjs.,  400,  2  and  3; 
for  gen.  aft:er  verbs,  407,  N.  2 ;  410, 
I.,  2  ;  410,  II.,  3  ;  alter  r^/Vr^  and^;i- 
terest,  408,  I.,  3 ;  408,  IV. ;  express- 
ing penalty,  410,  III. ;  separation, 
source,  cause,  413  ;  414,  N.  1. ;  415 ; 
416,  I. ;  after  compar.,  417,  notes  3 
and  5;  denoting  accompaniment, 
419,  I. ;  manner,  419,  III.  Cases 
w.  preps.,  432  fl.',  ace,  433;  abl., 
434 ;  ace  or  abl.,  435.  Special  uses 
of  preps.,   433^  I.:   434,   I.;    435, 

I.  Preps,  originally  adverbs,  436. 
Adverbs  as  preps.,  437.  Preps  w. 
infin.,  533,  3,  N.  4;  w.  ger.,  542, 
III.;  542,  IV.,  (2);  w.  gerund, 
constr.,  544,  2.  Prep,  between  adj. 
and  noun,  565,  3.  Position  of 
preps.,  569,  II.  Quant,  of  insep. 
preps.,  594,  2.  Monosyllabic  preps, 
repeated,  636,  III.,  6;  other  preps., 
636,  III.,  6,  N. 

Presbyter,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 

Present,  197;  198,  I.,  1;  222.  I. 
Pres.  stem,  250;  251.  Pres.  indie, 
466  ;  467 ;  of  gen.  truths,  customs, 
467,  11.  Hist,  pres.,  467,  III. ;  in 
temp,  clauses,  518,  N.  1.  Pres. 
subj.,  479;  in  condit.,  507,  II.; 
509 ;  513,  N.  1 ;  in  concess.,  515, 
II.,  2 ;  in  indir.  disc,  525,  1 ;  527, 

II.  Pres.  imperat.,  487,  1.  Pres. 
infin.,  537.  Pres.  particip.,  550. 
Pres.  perf.,  197,  N.  1 ;  198,  I.,  2  • 
471,  I.  Pres.  system.  222,  I.  -Is 
in  pres.  subj.,  581,  Vlll.,  4. 

Priapeian  verse,  629,  II. 

Price,  gen.  of,  404;  405  ;  abl.,  422. 

Prldie,  locat.,  120,  N. ;  w.  gen.,  398, 

5;  w.   ace,  437,  1.     Prldie  quam 

in  temp,  clauses,  520,  N.  2.     E  in 

prldie,  p.  241,  foot-note  2. 
Primary   stems,    315;    317.      Prim. 

suflixes,  p.  153j  foot-note  6  ;  320. 
Primum,primd,  m  series,  554, 1.,  N.  2. 
P'lnceps,  decl.,  67. 


416 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Principal  parts  of  verbs,  202 ;  220 ; 
257-28S.  Prin.  clauses,  348,  N. 
2;  in  indir.  disc,  523;  supplied 
by  particip.,  549,  5.  Prin.  tenses, 
198,  I. ;  in  seq.,  491  ff.  Prin.  ele- 
ments of  sentence,  357,  1. 

Prior ^  primus^  166  :  rendered  by  relat. 
clause,  442,  N.  ;  by  adverb,  443,  N. 

1,  (2). 
Priusquam^  311,  1 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 

520. 

Prlvo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 

Fro,  312,  3 ;  in  hiatus,  608,  II.,  1. 

Pro,  prod,  in  compds.,  344,  5  ;  pro  in, 
594,  5.     Compds.  w.  dat.,  386. 

Pro  w.  abl.,  434;  434, 1. ;  expressing 
in  defence  of,  in  behalf  of,  384, 3,  2). 
Prd\y.  ger.,  p.  316,  root-note  1. 

Procelcusmatics,  633,  III.,  2,  N.  1. 

Proclitics,  18,  1,  N.  1. 

ProcUvis  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  supine,  547,  1. 

P^ocul  \v.  abl.,  437,  2. 

Prod  in  compds.,  344,  5. 

Prohibed,  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1. 

ProhibUso  i'or  pron  lb  uero,  240,  4. 

Prohibitions,  subj.  in,  484,  IV.,  w. 
N.  1;  imperat.,  487,  2,  2). 

Proinde,  310,  4. 

Prolepsis,  440,  2;  636,  IV.,  3. 

Pronominal  roots,  314,  II. 

Pronouns,  182  ff. ;  pers.,  183, 1 ;  184 ; 
Bubstant.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3;  case- 
endings,  184,  1;  possess.,  185;  de- 
mon., 186;  relat.,  187;  interrog., 
188;  indef.,  189;  190;  corrclat., 
191.  Prons .  as  adj  s . ,  43 8 , 1 .  Agree- 
ment of  pron.,  445.  Use  of  pers. 
pron.,  446  ;  possess.,  447  ff. ;  reflex., 
448;  449;  demon.,  450  ff . ;  relat., 
453;  interrog.,  454;  indef,  455  ff. 
Pron.  in  indir.  disc,  526.  Prons. 
brought  together,  569,  I.,  2.  Pron. 
redundant,  636,  III.,  7. 

Pronunciation  of  Latin,  Roman,  5  ff. ; 
Eng.,  9  ff. ;  Continental,  15. 

P-ope  w.  ace,  433 ;  433,  I. ;  w.  perf. 
indie,  471,  2;  w.  hist,  tenses  of  in- 
die, 511,  1,  N.  4. 

Proper  nouns,  39,  1 ;  plur.  of,  130,  2. 

Propinquus  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1  and  3. 

Propior,  prOximm,  166;  w.  ace,  391, 
2:  433,  I.,  N.  2;  w.  force  of  Eng. 
adverb,  443,  N.  1. 

Propius  w.  ace,  437,  1 ;  433,  I.,  N.  2. 

Proportionals,  173,  2. 

P'oprim,  constr.,  p.  205,  foot-notes  1 

and  3. 
Propter  w.  ace ,  433  ;  433,  I. 


Proptered,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Prosody,  574  ff. ;  quant.,  575  ff. ; 
versification,  596  ff. ;  figures  of  pros., 
608. 

Prosopopcia,  637,  IX. 

Prosper^  decl.,  150,  N.,  1). 

Prospic^,  constr.,  385, 1. 

I^otinus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Prout,  311,  2. 

Provided,  constr.,  385,  1. 

Providus,  compar.,  164;  w.  gen.,  p. 
210,  foot-note  3. 

Proxiine  w.  ace,  433,  I.,  N.  2 ;  437, 1. 

P'oximus,  see  propior. 

lYudens,  decl.,  157;  w.  gen.,  p.  210, 
foot-note  3 ;  w.  force  of  Eng.  ad- 
verb, 443,  N.  1,  (1). 

-pte,  pronouns  in,  185,  N.  2. 

Pudet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410,  IV. 

Pudlcus,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  4. 

Puer,  decl.,  51. 

Pug  no  w.  dat.,  p.  201  ^  foot-note  1. 

Puppis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Purpose,  dat.  of,  384,  1,  3);  subj.  of, 
497  ff. ;  object  clauses,  498 ;  peculi- 
arities, 499.  Infin.  of  purpose,  533, 
II.;  gerund,  542,  I.,  N.  2;  542, 
III.,  JN.  2 ;  gerundive,  544,  2,  N. 
2;  Bupine,  546;  particip.,  549,  3. 
Position  of  clauses  of  purpose,  572, 
III..  N. 

Pus,  defect.,  133,  N. 

-pus,  compds.  in,  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  II.,  5,  (3). 

Puta,  a  in,  581,  III.,  3. 

Putor,  constr.,  534,  1,  N.  1,  (2). 

Pyrites,  decl.,  50. 

Pyrrhic,  597,  N.  1. 

Pythiambic  stanza,  631,  XVII.  and 
XVIII. 

Q 

Q,  qu,  dropped,  36,  3.     Qu  changed 

to  c,  33, 1,  N. 
Qua,  304,  II.,  3;  305,  V. 
Quaero,  constr.,  p.  193,  foot-note  1. 
Qudlis,  qudliscnmque,  187,  4.     Cujus- 

modi,  etc.,  for  qudlis,  187,  4,   N. 

Qudlis,  interrog.,  188,  4. 
Qudlislibet,  191. 
Qudlisqiidlis,  187,  4. 
Quality,  abl.  of,  419,  II.,  w.  N. 
Quam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  304,  I.,  4; 

305,   v.;  p.  151,  foot-note  1;  311, 

2;  w.  comparat.,  417;  444,  2;  av. 

superlat.,  170,  2,  (2) ;  w.  innn.,  524, 

1,  2).     Quam  for  postqu am,  430,  N. 

1,   3).      Quam  pro,  417,   1,   N.   5. 

Quam,  quam  ut,  w.  subj.,  502,  2. 

Quam   qui,   w.    subj.,   503,   II.,   3. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


417 


Quam  si,  513,  II.  Tarn— quam, 
non  mimes  —  quam,  non  magis — 
quam,  555,  11. ,  1.  Nihil  aliud 
quam,  555,  III.,  1. 

Quamdiu,  311,  1. 

Quam/ybrem,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Quamquam,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  311, 
4;  in  concess.,  515, 1. ;  515,  notes  1 
and  2 ;  w.  infin.,  524, 1,  2). 

Quamvls,  311,  4 ;  in  concess.,  515,  III.; 

515,  N.  3. 

QuandO,  interrog.,  305,  IV.  ;  relat., 
311,  1   and  7;  in  causal  clauses, 

516.  ^  Quando  in  compds.,  594,  8. 
Quandbquidem,  311,  7  ;  ^  in,  594^  8. 
Quantity,  16 ;  575  ff . :  signs  ot,  16, 

N.  3 ;  gen.  rules,  576  ff.  Quant, 
in  final  syllables,  579  ff. ;  incre- 
ments, 582  ff.  ;  deriv.  endings,  587 ; 
stem  -  syllables,  588  ff.  ;  syllables 
before  two  consonants  or  a  double 
consonant,  651. 

Quantumlibtt,  quantumvls,  311,  4. 
Quantumvls  in  concess.,  515,  N.  6. 

Quantus,  relat.,  187,  4;  interrog.,  188, 
4;  corrclat,  191.  Quanti,  constr., 
p.  213,  foot-note  2 ;  405. 

Quantusvis,  indef.,  191. 

Qudpropter,  554,  IV.,  2. 

Qudre,  304,  II.,  1,  N. ;  554,  IV.,  2 ;  e 
in,  p.  341,  foot-note  2. 

QuasL  311,  2  ;  w.  quldam,  456,  2  ;  in 
condit.,  513,  II.  /in  quasi,  b^l,  I., 
1 ;  a  in,  594,  10. 

Qudvis,  indef,  305,  V. 

Que,  310, 1 ;  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  554, 
I.  Idem— que,  451,  5.  Que— que, 
et — que,  que — et,  que — atau^,  neque 
(nee)— que,  554,  1.,  5.  Position  of 
que,  569,  III.,  4.  Que  lengthened 
in  Vergil,  608,  V.,  N.  2. 

Quercus,  decl.,  119,  4. 

Queror  w.  infin.,  p.  310,  foot-note  2. 

Questioning,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  374, 
N.  3. 

Questions,  351 ;  double,  353 ;  delibe- 
rat.  in  indir.  disc,  523,  II.,  1,  N. ; 
rhetor.,  p.  297,  foot-note  2;  indir., 
528,  2  ;  529,  I. 

Qui,  relat.  pron.,  187  ;  453  ;  interrog., 
188;  454;  indef,  189;  190;  455; 
corrclat. ,  191.  Qui  w.  subj .  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  I.  ;  of  result,  500,  I. ;  503. 
Qui  in  condit.,  507,  2 ;  concess.,  515, 
III. ;  515,  N.  4 ;  causal  clauses,  517. 
Qui  dleitur,  vocdtur,  453,  7.  Quod 
as  adverb,  ace,  353,  6.  Quod  in 
restrict,  clauses,  503,  N.  1.  /in 
cul,  581,  L,  1. 

Qui,  adverb,  187,  1  ;  188,  2. 


Quia,  311,  7 ;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3j  2);  w.  infin.,  524, 

1,  2).     A  in  quia,  581,  III.,  3. 
Qulcumque,  gen.  relat.,  187,  3. 
Quldam,  mdef.,  190,  2,  1)  ;  191;  use, 

456. 
Quidem  w.  pron.,  446,  N.  1 ;  position, 

669,  III.;  569,  III.,  3. 
Quies,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Qullibet,  gen.  indef,  190,  2,  2);  use, 

458. 
Quln,  p.  75,  foot-note  2 ;  311,  6 ;  w. 

subj.,  500,  II. ;  501,  II.,  2;  504. 
Qulnmn,  188,  3. 
Quinarius,  646. 
Qulnqudtrus,  gend.,  118,  (2). 
Qulppe,  p.  75,  foot-note  2;  w.  relat., 

517,  3,  1). 

Quirls,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Quis,  inten-og.,  188;  use,  454;  indef, 
189;  190;  use,  455;  correlat.,  191. 
/  in  quis,  579,  3.  A  in  qua,  in- 
def., 579,  3.     Quid  redundant,  636, 

III.,  7. 
Quis  for  quibus,  p.  74,  foot-note  5. 
Quisnam,  188,  3. 

Quispiam,  indef,  190,  2,  1) ;  use,  455. 
Quisquam,  indef,  190,  2,  1) ;  use,  457. 
Quisque,  gen.  indef,  190,  2,  2);  use, 

458;   w.   abl.   abs.,  431.  IN.  3;  w. 

plur.  verb,    461,    3.      Placed  next 

6UUS  or  sul,  569,  I.,  2. 
Quisquis,  sen.  relat.,  187,  3.     Quid- 
quid  used  of  persons,  453,  1,  N. 
Quitum,  i  in,  590,  1. 
Qulvls,  gen.  indef.,  190,  2,  2);  use, 

458;  ls\n,  581,  VIII.,  3,  N. 
Quo,  304,  II.,  3,  N. ;  305,  II. ;  311,  5 ; 

w\  part,  gen.,  p.  209,  foot-note  3; 

w.  subj.  of  purpose,  497,  II. 
Quoad,  311,  1;  w.  part,  gen.,  p.  209, 

foot-note  3 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  519. 
Qubcircd,  554,  IV.,  2. 
Quocumque,  305,  N.  1. 
Quod,  p.  151,  foot-note  1 ;  311,  7 ;  in 

causal  clauses,  516. 
Quod-e\im^e^,  540,  IV.,  w.  N.     Nisi 

quod,  555,  III.,  1.     See  also  qui. 
Quoi  for  cui,  quoius  for  cujus,  p.  74, 

foot-note  5. 
Quolibet,  305,  II. 
Quom,  305,  IV. ;  p.  151,  foot-notes  1 

and  4;  311,  1,  4,  and  7. 
Qumninus.  311,  5;  w.  subj.,  497,  II.  ,* 

499,  3,  N,  2. 
Quoniam,  composition,  p.  6,  foot-note 

5;  311,  7;   in  causal  claus&s,  516; 

w.  relat.,  517,  3,  2). 
Quoque,  310,  1;  554,  I.,  4;  position, 

569,  III. ;  0  in,  594,  10. 


418 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


419 


Quoquo^  305,  N.  1. 
Quorsum^  305,  II. 

Quot,  relat.,  187,  4;  intcrroff.,  188,  4: 
correlat.,  191.  '    ' 

Quotannis,  304,  II.,  1,  N. 
Quotiem^  305,  IV. 

^wo^z^,  relat.,  187, 4 ;  interrog.,  188, 4. 
(;>M^r^  305,  II.  c,  7       , 

^wt^T»,  305,  IV. ;  see  cum. 

B 

E  assimilated  to  I,  34,  2 ;  dropped,  36, 
3,  N.  3.  Noim-stems  in  r,  60 ;  verb- 
stems  in  supine,  256,  1.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  r,  77.  Quant,  of  final  syl- 
lablesjn  r,  580,  II.,  w.  N.  2. 

-ra,  -ra,  suffixes,  320. 

Iiddix^  decl.,  59. 

Iidstrum^  plur.,  143,  2. 

Batio^  circumlocutions  w.,  636,  III., 
10.  '        >         ^ 

Batum^  a  in,  590,  1. 

Bdvis,  decl.,  62,  II.,  1. 

Be,  insep.   prep.,   308;    in  compds., 

344,  6 ;  ^  in,  594,  2.     Be  for  re,  594, 

2,  N.  3.  '        ' 

-re  for  ris.  237. 
Heading,  rhythmical,  607. 
Bedpse,  p.  73,  foot-note  5. 
Keason,  clauses  expressing,  516. 
Eecollection.  adjs.  of,  w.  gen.,  399,  I., 

2;  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Becordor  w.  gen.,  406,  II.  ;  w.  ace, 

407,  N.  1,  (1) ;  w.  abl.  w.  de,  407 

N.  2. 
Becmo,  constr.,  p.  279,  foot-note  2. 
Bed,   insep.  prep.,  308;  in  compds., 

344,  6. 

Reduplicated  pronouns,  184,  4;  per- 
fects, 255,  I.  Quant,  of  first  two 
Byllables  of  trisyllabic  reduplicated 
perfects,  591.  Increm.  of  redupli- 
cated forms  of  verbs,  586,  2. 

Eeduplication  in  pres.,  251,  6;  perf , 
255,  1. ;  compds.,  255,  I.,  4. 

Befert,  constr.,  406,  III.  ;  408. 

Befertus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eeflexive  pron.,  184,  2.  Eeflex.  use 
ofpron.,448;  449. 

Eefusing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  505,  II. 

Regarding,  verbs  of,  w.  two  aces.,  373  ; 
w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2) ;  w.  gen., 
403.  ^      ' 

Bigno  w.  gen.,  410,  V.,  3. 

Eel  ATI  VE  Pronoun,  187  ;  correlat., 
191 ;  use,  453.  Abl.  of  relat.  for 
postqnam,  430,  N.  2.  Eclat,  at- 
tracted^ 445,  8.  Eelat.  clause  w. 
subj.  ol  desire,  483,  5  ;  purpose,  497, 


I. ;  result,  600,  I. ;  503 ;  to  charac- 
terize indef  or  gen.  anteced.,  503, 
I.;  after  umis,  solus,  etc.,  503,  II., 
1 ;  after  dig  mis,  iiidiqnus,  idoneus, 
aptus,  503,  II.,  2;  after  comparat. 
w.  quam,  503,  II.,  3.  Eelat.  clause 
m  condit.,  507,  2;  concess.,  515, 
III.,  w.  N.  4;  causal  clause,  517. 
Eelat.  clause  w.  infinit.,  524,  1,  1); 
supplied  by  particip.,  549,  4.  l*osi- 
tion  of  relat..  569,  III. ;  before  prep., 
569,  II.,  1.  Position  of  relat.  clauses, 
572,  II.,  N.  ' 

Belaxo,  relevo,  w.  abl.,  p.  219,  foot- 
note 1. 

Eelieving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  414,  1. 

Belinqiio  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 

BUiquifs,  meaning,  440,  K  2.  BUi- 
qulfacere,  401,  N.  4. 

Eemaining,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  501, 

■1-  •  •    J.  • 

Eemembering,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  407. 

Eeminding  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  409, 
I.;  410,  I.  ' 

Beminiscor  av.  gen.,  406,  II. 

Eepeated  action  denoted  by  imperf 
indie,  469,  II.;  plup.  indie,  518, 
N.  2,  2);  imperf.  or  plup.  subj., 
518,  1. 

Eepelling,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 

Bepentlrius,  I  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 

Beposcd  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2. 

Btquies,  decl.,  137,  1;  quant,  of  in- 
crem., 585,  III.,  3. 

Bes,  decl.,  120;  w.  adjs.,  440,  N.  4. 
Circumlocutions  w.  r'es,  636,  III.,  10. 

Eesisting,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

Bespuhltca,  decl.,  126. 

Bestat  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Bestis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Eestrictive  clauses  w.  qvod,  503,  N.  1 . 

Eesult,  subj.  of,  500  fif.  ;  substant. 
clauses  of,  501 ;  peculiarities,  602 ; 
m  relat.  clauses,  503  ;  w.qtnn,  504  : 
w.  special  verbs,  505.  Position  of 
clauses  of  result,  572,  III.,  N. 

Bete,  decl.,  63,  2,  (2). 

Eeticcntia,  636,  I.,  3  ;  637,  XL,  3. 

Bex,  decl.,  59;  quant,  of  increm.,  585, 

BJi£a,  em,  577,  I.,  2,  (3). 
Ehetoric,  figures  of,  634,  N. ;  637. 
Ehctorieal  questions,  523,  II.,  2. 
Ehythm,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Ehythmic  accent,  599. 
Ehythmical  reading,  607. 
Bided  w.  ace,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 
Elvers,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  I.,  2 ; 
43,  1.  >       »     )     ^ 

-ro,  suffix,  320,  II. 


Boqo  w.  two  aces.,  374,  2;  w.  subj., 
p.  274,  foot-note  1. 

Boma,  decl.,  48,  4. 

Eoman  pronunciation  of  Lat.,  5  ff. 
Eoman  authors,  640.  Eoman  calen- 
dar, 641  ff.  ;  money,  weights,  and 
measures,  646  fi".  ;  names,  649. 

Eoots,  314.     Eoot-stems,  315. 

Bos  without  gen.  plur.,  133,  5. 

Bostrum,  rodra,  132. 

-rs,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  65,  3,  (1) ;  90. 

Budis  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Eules  of  syntax,  558. 

Bus,  decl.,  64,  N.  3  ;  133,  N. ;  constr., 
380,  2,  1).  Bure,  412,  1.  Burl, 
426,  2. 

-rus,  compar.  of  adjs.  in,  163,  3. 

Butum^  quant,  of  pen.,  590,  1. 

S 

S,  sound,  7 ;  13,  II. ;  changed  to  r, 
31 ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N.  3 ;  36,  5,  1). 
Stems  in  s,  61.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  s, 
64;  65,3;  79  ff.;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  2;  585,  II.,  2.  Final  sylla- 
bles in  s  short  before  following  con- 
sonant, 57  6 , 1 ,  N .  2.  Final  s  dropped 
in  poetry,  608,  I.,  N.  3. 

-S^ patronymics  in,  322. 

-sa,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Sacer,  compar.,  167,  2;  w.  gen.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  3. 

Saepe,  compar.,  306,  4. 

/Sa/,  decl.,  133,  5.  Sal,  sales,  IZ^l,  A 
in  sal,  579,  2 ;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  4,  (3). 

Salix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Saluber,  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Salutdris  without  superlat.,  168,  3; 
w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 

Samnis,  quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 

Sam  quam  as  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Sapid  w.  ace,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sapphic  verse,  604,  N .  1 ;  628,  VI. 
and  VII.  Sapphic  stanza,  631,  II. 
and  III. 

Satis,  compar.,  306,  4;  w.  part,  gen., 
p.  209,  foot-note  3  ;  compos,  w.  dat., 
384,  4,  N.  1. 

Saturn,  a  in,  590,  1. 

Satur,  decl.,  150,  N.,  2). 

Saying,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1,  N. 

i,  (2). 
Scanning,  607,  N. 
Scazon,  p.  361,  foot-note  1. 
Scelus  w.  supine,  547, 1. 
Scidi,  i  in,  590,  1. 


Scions  w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443, 
N.  1,  (1). 

Scilicet,  304,  IV.  ^  N.  2. 

-SCO,  inceptives  in,  337. 

Se,  insep.  prep.,  308  ;  in  compds.,  344, 
6 ;  e  in,  594,  2. 

Second  decl.,  51  ft*.  Sec.  con^.,  207; 
208 ;  225 ;  261  ff. ;  e  in  imperat.,  581, 
IV.,  3.  Sec.  pers.  sing,  of  indef. 
you,  484,  IV.,  N.  2. 

Secondary  tenses,  198,  II.  Secondary 
stems,  315;  318.  Second,  suffixes, 
p.  154,  foot-note  4. 

Secundum  w.  ace,  433 ;  433,  I. 

Securis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Secus.  'sex,'  defect.,  134.  Secus, 
'  otnerwise,'  p.  145,  foot-note  5. 

Sed  for  se,  184,  5.  Sed,  insep.  prep., 
308  ;  in  compds,  344,  6. 

Sed,  310,  3 ;  554,  III.,  2.  Noti  solum 
(non  modo  or  non  tantum) — sed 
etiam,  554,  I.,  5.  Sed,  sed  tamen, 
resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3.  Position 
of  sed  m  poetry,  569,  III.,  N. 

Sedes,  gen.  plur.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Sedtamen,  554,  III.,  3. 

Seeming,  pred.  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  403. 

Selling,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  405. 

Semel,  p.  145,  foot-note  4. 

Sementis,  decl.,  62,  III. 

Semi-deponents,  268,  3;  283;  465, 
N.  2. 

Seminex,  defect.,  159,  II. 

Semi- vowels,  3,  II.,  1. 

Senarius,  603,  N.  6 ;  622. 

Sendtiis,  decl.,  119,  3. 

Sending,  two  dats.  w.  verbs  of,  390, 
N.  1,  2). 

Seneca,  metres,  633,  II.,  notes  2  and  3. 

Senex,  decl.,  66  ;  compar.,  168,  4. 

Sentences,  syntax,  345  ft". ;  classifica- 
tion, 345  ff.  ;  simple,  347  ;  357  ; 
complex,  348 ;  359 ;  compound,  349 ; 
declarat.,  350;  in  indir.  disc,  523, 
I. ;  imperat.,  354.  See  also  Exclama- 
tory, interrogative.  Conditional, 

Separation,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  4, 
2).  Abl.  of  separat.,  413  ;  414. 
Separat.  producing  emphasis,  561, 
III. 

S'epse  for  se,  184,  5. 

Sequence  of  Tenses,  491  ff. ;  pecu- 
liarities, 495. 

Sequitur  w.  subj.,  p.  276,  foot-note  2. 

Series,  how  begun  and  continued,  554, 
I.^  N.  2. 

Series,  defect.,  122,  2. 

Serving,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  I. 

Servus,  decl.,  51. 

Sescentl  used  indefinitely,  174,  4. 


420 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Sm  for  se,  184,  4. 

Sesterces,  647. 

Sestertium,  gestcrtium,  647,  III.  and 

Sestertius,  646  j  647. 

Setius.  quo  setius  for  quOminus^  497, 

Seu^  310,  2. 

Ships,  gend.  of  names  of,  63,  1,  (2). 

Short  syllables,  575. 

Shortening  of  vowels,  21. 

Showing,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  373. 

tSl^  derivat.  and  meaning,  p.  73,  foot- 
note 2-  311,  3;  D.  281,  foot-note  2; 
in  condit.,  507  n.  ;  w.  perf  indie, 
471,  5 ;  w.  plup.  indie,  472.  2 ;  w. 
subj.  of  desire,  483,  1.  Si  m  con- 
cess.,  515,  II.  Si  =  to  see  whether, 
529, 1.  N.  1.    Si  quidem,  507,  3,  N.  2. 

-si,  suftix.  320,  II.  -ISi  in  Greek  dats. , 
68,5;  ^m,  581,  I.,l. 

Slc^  p.  73,  foot-note  2;  304,  III.,  2; 
305,  v.;    551,  N.    2;    redundant 
636,  III.,  7. 

Slcut,  sicuti^  311,  2. 

Slem  for  Hm^  204,  2. 

-sills,  adjs.  m,  333. 

Silver  age,  640,  II.,  2. 

Siheste)'^  decl.,  153^  N.  1,  1). 

-Sim  in  perf.  subj.,  240,  4;  in  ad- 
verbs, 304,  I.,  1. 

-sixni;,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simile^  637,  I. 

Similts,  compar.,  163,  2;  w.  dat.,  p. 
205,  foot-note  1 ;  w.  gen.,  p.  205, 
foot-note  3. 

-simo,  suffix,  p.  156,  foot-note  9. 

Simple  sentence,  347  ;  357.  Simp,  ele- 
ments, 357,  2;  subject,  358;  pred., 
360.     Simple  words,  313,  N.  2. 

Simula  p.  145,  foot-note  4  ;  311,  1 ;  w. 
abl.,  437,  2.  Siniid  atqite^  dc  in 
temp,  clauses,  518  ;  w.  perf.  indie, 
471,4. 

Simuldc^  simiilatque^  311,  1 ;  in  temp, 
clauses,  518  ;  w.  perf.  indie,  471,  4. 

Sin,  311,  3;  in  condit.,  507  ff.  ;  p. 
282j  foot-note  1.     Sin  aliter,  552,  3. 

-sin  m  Greek  dat.  plur.,  68,  5. 

Sine  w.  abl.,  434. 

Singular,  44  ;  wanting,  131. 

Sinistrd,  constr.,  425,  2. 

:Sino^  constr.,  p.  310,  foot-note  1.  /in 
situm,  590,  1. 

Siquidem,  311,  7  ;  507,  3,  N.  2  ;  quant. 
oK  first  syllab.,  594,  10. 

Sitid  w.  ace,  371,  III.,  N.  1. 

Sitis,  decl.,  62,  it.  1. 

Sive.^lO,  2;  554,  II.,  3. 

Size,  gen.  of,  419,  2,  1).  j 


Skill,  gen.  w.  adjs.  of,  399, 1.,  2 ;  gen. 

of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 
Smell,  ace  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 
-so,  suffix,  320,  II.    SO'm  fut.  perf., 

240,  4. 
Socer,  decl.,  51,  4,  3). 
Socio  w.  dat.,  p.  201,  foot-note  1. 
Sol,  decl.,  60  ;  133,  5 ;  o  in,  579,  2. 
Solum,  nori  solum — sed  etiam  (verum 

etiam),  554,  I.,  5. 
Solus,  decl.,  151 ;   for  Eng.  adverb, 
443,  N.  1,  2.     Gen.  of  solus  w.  pos- 
sess., 398,  3.     Solus  qui  w.  subj., 
503,  II.,  1. 
Solvo,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
*Son,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1,  N. 

2.     Name  of  adopted  son,  649,  3. 
Sonants,  3,  II.,  5,  1 ;  3,  N.  1,  11.,  1. 
Sons,  defect.,  159,  II. 
-soriiis,  0  in,  587,  III.,  4. 
Sors,  abl.,  64,  N.  3. 
Sotadean  verse,  626,  N.  2. 
Source,  abl.  of,  413 ;  415. 
Space,  ace  of,  379. 
Sparing,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  885,  II. 
Special  constr.  w.  infin.,  539.     Gen. 

in  spec,  constr.,  398. 
Species,  decl.,  122,  2. 
Specification,  ace  of,  378 ;  abl.,  424. 
Specimen,  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 
JSpecus,  decl.,  117,  1,  2);  p.  50,  foot- 
note 1 ;  gend.,  118,  (2). 
Speech,    parts    of,    88.      Figures    of 

speech,  634  ff. 
Spes^  decl.,  122,  2. 
Sphinx,  decl.,  p.  38,  foot-note  3. 
Spirants,  3,  II.,  4,  2. 
Spolio,  constr.,  p.  219,  foot-note  1. 
Spondaic  line,  610,  3. 
Spondee,  597,  I. 
Square  measure,  Rom.,  648,  V. 
Stadium,  648,  IV.,  N. 
Stanza,  606.     Stanzas  of  Horace,  631. 
StatuO,  constr.,  498,  I.,  N. ;   p.  274, 

foot-note  1. 
Stem  in  decl.,  46.  Stem-characteris- 
tic, stem-ending,  46,  3.  Stem  in 
Decl.  I.  48,  1 ',  Decl.  II.,  51,  1  ; 
Decl.  111.,  57,  1  ;  58,  1 ;  59,  1 ;  60, 
1;  61,1;  62,1:  64,1,1);  66, 1  and 
3;  69-98;  Decl.  IV.,  116,  1 ;  Decl. 
v.,  120,  1.  Stems  of  verbs,  202, 
notes  1  and  2 ;  203,  N.  2 ;  fonnation 
of,  249  ff.     Stems  of  words,  315  ff. 


Sterilis  w.  gen.,  p.  219,  foot-note  4. 
Stirpe,  constr.,  415,  II.,  N. 
Stiti,  i  in,  590,  1. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


421 


StO  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1.    E  in 

stetl,  a  in  statum,  590,  1. 
Strigilis,  decl.,  62,  III. 
Striving,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  498,  II. 

Strix  w.  short  increm.,  p.  343,  foot- 
note 2. 

Strong  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Strms^  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Studeo,  constr.,  498,  II.,  N.  1 ;  p.  274, 
foot-note  2. 

Studiosus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3 ; 
w.  gen.  of  ger.,  p.  315,  foot-note  2. 

Suh  in  compds.,  344,  6;  w.  dat.,  386. 
Suh  w.  ace  or  abl.,  435 :  435,  N.  1 : 
435,1. 

Subject,  356,  1 ;  simple,  358 ;  com- 
plex, 359 ;  modified,  359,  N.  1.  Subj. 
nom.,  368.  Subj.  indef.,  518,  2. 
Subj.  ace,  536.  Infin.  as  subi., 
538.  Subject  clauses,  501, 1.  Sud- 
jects  compared,  535,  5.  Dat.  w. 
adjs.  signifying  subject,  391, 1.  Posi- 
tion of  subj.,  560. 

Subjective  gen.,  396,  II. 

Subjunctive,  196,  II.  Syntax  of  subj. , 
477  ff. ;  tenses,  478  ff. ;  sequence, 
490  ff.  Subj.  in  prin.  clauses,  483 
ff. ;  in  subord.  clauses,  490  ff.  Subj. 
of  desire,  483;  484;  potent.,  485; 
486 ;  of  purpose,  497  ff. ;  of  result, 
500  ff. ;  m  condit.,  507  ff. ;  in  con- 
ccss.,  615;  in  causal  clauses,  516; 
517 ;  in  temp,  clauses,  619  n. ;  in 
indir.  disc,  523  ff. ;  in  indir.  clauses, 
529  ff.^ ;  in  indir.  questions,  529,  I. 
Subj.  in  questions  of  surprise,  486, 
II. ,  N.  Subj.  of  desire  for  imperat. , 
487,  4.  -Is  m  subj.,  581,  VIII.,  4; 
-is,  581,  VIII.,  5. 

Subordinate  Clauses,  848,  N.  2 ;  490 
ff.  ;  in  indir.  disc,  524.  Subord. 
conjs.,  311 ;  555  ;  elements,  357,  1 ; 
position,  572. 

SuDstantive  pron.,  p.  70,  foot-note  3. 
Substant.  clauses,  532  ff.  ;  540 ;  of 
purpose,  499,  3 ;  of  result,  501.  Sub- 
stantives, see  Nouns. 

Suhter  w.  ace  or  abl.,  435. 

Suffixes,  46;  case-suffix,  46,  1.  Suf- 
fixes in  lormat.  of  words,  313  ff. 
Primary  suffixes,  320. 

Sul,  decl.,  184;  use,  448 ;  449 j,  placed 
next  quisque,  569,  I.,  2.  /in  sihi, 
581,  I.,  2. 

Suitableness,  constr.  w.  adjs.  of,  391, 
I. ;  391.  IL,  1,  2). 

Sum  w.  dat.,  387  ;  two  dats.,  390,  N. 
1,  1);  prcd.  gen.,  403;  404;  abl., 
415,  III.,  N.  1 ;  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Summus,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 


Supellex,  decl.,  64,  N.  3;  130,  1,  4). 

Super  in  compds.  w.  ace,  372;  dat., 
386 ;  abl.,  434,  N.  1.  Super  w.  ace 
or  abl.,  435 ;  435,  N.  2  ;  435,  I. 

Superlative,  160*  irreg.,  163;  want- 
ing, 168;  169;  lormed  by  maxima, 
170.  Superlat.  w.  part,  gen.,  397, 
3 ;  p.  209,  foot-note  3.  Use  of  su- 
perlat., 444. 

Superne,  e  final  in,  581,  IV.,  4. 

Superus,  compar.,  163,  3. 

Supine,  200,  III. ;  endings,  248.  Su- 
pine system,  222,  III.  Supine  stem, 
256.  Supine  wanting,  262,  notes  1 
and  2 ;  265 ;  266 ;  267,  3  ;  271, 1  and 
2 ;  272,  1 ;  272,  notes  1  and  2 ;  276  ; 
278  ;  281 ;  282 ;  284 ;  284,  N.  2.  Su- 
pine in  seq.  of  tenses,  495,  IV.  Use 
of  sup. ,  545  ff.  ;  sup.  in  xnm,  545 ; 
546 ;  w.  eo,  546,  2 ;  w.  Irl,  546,  3 ; 
sup.  in  u,  545  ;  547.  Quant,  of  pen. 
of  dissyllabic  supines,  590. 

Supra  w.  ace,  433  ;  433,  I. 

Supremxis,  meaning,  440,  N.  2. 

Surds,_3,  II.,  5,  2;  3,  N.  1,  II.,  2. 

-surio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

Surname  in  names  of  Koman  citizens, 
649,  2. 

Sus,  decl.,  66. 

Suu8^  185 ;  448 ;  449 ;  placed  near 
qinsque,  569,  I,  2. 

Syllabic  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 

Syllables,  8;  14;  15,  3;  quant.,  575 
ff.  Final  syl.  of  verse  either  long 
or  short,  605. 

Syllepsis,  636,  II.,  2. 

Symbols,  num.,  180. 

Synaeresis,  608,  III. 

Synaloepha,  synapheia,  608, 1.,  N.  5. 

Syncopated  pron.,  186,  3. 

Syncope,  608,  VIl. ;  635,  2. 

Synecdoche,  637,  IV. 

Synesis,  636,  IV.,  4;  363,  4;  438,  6; 
445,  5;  449,  3;  461. 

Synizesis,  608,  III.,  N.  3. 

Synopsis  of  Decl.  III.,  69-98.  Syn.  of 
conj.,  223-230. 

Syntax,  845  ff. ;  sentences,  345  ff. ; 
nouns,  862  ff. ;  adjs^  438  n. ;  prons., 
445  ff.  ;  verbs,  460  ff. ;  particles,  551 
ff.  Kules  of  syntax,  558.  Arrang. 
of  words  and  clauses,  559  ff.  Figures 
of  syntax,  634,  N. ;  636. 

Systole,  608,  VI. 

T 

T,  sound,  7 ;  13,  II.  T  changed  to 
d,  33,  2 ;  assimilated  to  n  or  s,  34, 
1;  dropped  before  s,  36,  2;  when 


43-^ 


/V 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


final.   30,   5,   2).      Stems  in  t,   58. 

Gcnd.    of    nouns     in    t^    111.      T 

changed    to    s   in    supine^   250,   1. 

Quant,  of  final  syllables  m  L  579, 

2;  580,11.;  580,  III.,  N.  2,1). 
-ta,  -ta,  suttixes,  320.    Nouns  in  -ta. 

325. 
Taedet,  constr.,  409,  III. ;  410.  IV. 
Taking  away,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  2. 
TtUiSy  180,  4;  correlat.,  191. 
Talp'X^  ffend.,  48,  5. 
Taiii^  p.  75,  foot-note  1;  304,  I.,  4; 

305,  V.  ;  meaning  and  use,  551,  N. 

2.     Tarn — quam^  555,  II.,  1. 
Tamen,  310,  3;  554,  III.,  2;  compds., 

554,  111.,  3. 
Tametsi^  311,  4 ;  in  concess.,  515,  II. 
Tandem  in  questions,  351,  4. 
Tanquam^   311,    2.       Tanquam^   tan- 

quam  si^  in  condit.,  513,  II. 
Tantisper,  304,  V.,  N.  2. 
Tantopere^  meaning  and  use,  551,  N.  2. 
Tantiun  abest  ^/^,502,   3.     Nort  tan- 

tum — sed  etiam  (verum  ctiam),  554, 

1. ,  o. 
7a?ttifs,  demonstr.,  180,  4;  correlat., 

191  ;    w.  interrog.,  454,  4.     Tanti, 

constr.,  p.    215,   foot-note   2 ;    405. 

Tantum  abest  vL  502,  3. 
-tar,  suffix,  320,  I. 
-tas,  nouns  in,  325. 
Taste,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  371,  III. 
-tat,  suffix,  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 
Tautology   discriminated   from    pleo- 
nasm, p.  371,  foot-note  1. 
Taxis  for  tetigeris^  240,  4. 
Teachincr,  two  aces.  w.  verbs  of,  374. 
Ted  f or  ^ie,  184,  5. 
Tempero,  constr.,  385,  1. 
Templum^  decl.,  51. 
Temporal    conjs.,    311,    1  ;    555,    I. 

Temp,   clauses,   518   fi*.  :    position, 

572,  II.,  N. 
Tempus  est  w.  infin.,  533,  N.  3. 
Tener,  decl.,  150,  JN.,  1). 
Tenses,  197;  prin.  and  histor.,  198. 

Tense-sic/ns,   242;  243.      Tenses  of 

indic.,  400  ff. ;  subj.,  478  f^r,  im- 

gerat.,  487  if.     Seq.  of  tenses,  490 
'.     Tenses  in  temp,  clauses,  518, 

notes  1  and  2 ;  in  indir.  disc. ,  525. 

Tenses  of  infin.,  537;  particip.,  550. 
Tento^  constr.,  493,  II.,  ri.  1. 
Tenus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  gen., 

398,  5 ;  w.  abl. ,  434 ;  after  its  case, 

434,  N.  4  ;  509,  II. 
Tet',  e  in.  579,  3. 
-ter,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  p.  155,  foot-note 

1.     Adverbs  in  -ter^  304,  IV.  Nouns 

in  -te7\  320  ;  decl. ,  00,  8. 


Terence,  peculiarities  in  versification, 
578,  JN.  2;  580,  III.,  notes  3  and  4  ; 
metres,  033.  III. 

Terminational  compar.,  101  flf. 

Terrd^  constr.,  425,  2.  Terrae,  locat., 
p.  229,  foot-note  1. 

Terrester^  decl.,  153,  N.  1, 1). 

Testis  sum ^  constr.,  535,  1.,  3. 

Tm  for  te,  184,  4. 

Tetrameter,  003,  N.  2 ;  dactylic,  010. 

Tetrapody,  597,  N.  4. 

Tetrastich,  000,  N. 

TJiebais^  a  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  1. 

Thematic  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251. 

Thesis,  GOO. 

Thinking,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  534,  1, 
N.  1,  (2);  535,  I.,  1. 

Third  decl.,  55  ff. ;  adjs.,  152  ff. ;  -o 
in,  581,  II.,  2.  Third  conj.,  209; 
210 ;  227  ;  228 ;  209  flf. 

Threatening,  dat.  w.  verbs  of,  385,  II. 

-ti,  suffix,"320;  p.  157,  foot-notes  7 
and  9. 

-tia,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

Tlbin\  decl.,  00,  4. 

-ticius,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

-tico,  suffix,  p.  150,  foot-note  8. 

-ticus,  adjs.  m,  330,  1. 

-tie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tills,  adjs.  m,  333. 

-tim,  adverbs  in,  304,  I.,  1. 

-tima,  suffix,  p.  150,  foot-note  9; 
-tima^  p.  157,  foot-note  9. 

Time,  advcri)s  of,  305,  N.  2,  2).  Ace. 
of  time,  379  :  abl.,  429  ;  379,  1. 
Time  denoted  by  preps,  w.  ace, 
379, 1  ;  429,  2 ;  w.  abl.,  429, 1.  Time 
since^  430,  N.  3.  Adis.  of  time^  443, 
N.  2.  Time  denoted  by  particip., 
549,  1.     See  also  temporal  clauses. 

Times  or  morae,  597. 

Timed^  constr.,  385,  1;  p.  274,  foot- 
note 3. 

-timo,  suffix,  p.  150,  foot-note  9. 

-timus,  a,  um^  surtix,  p.  157,  foot- 
note 9.  _^  Adjs.jn  -timus^  330,  1. 

-tio,  -tion,  -tioni,  suffixes,  p.  158, 
foot-note  1.     Nouns  in  -tid.  320. 

Tisiortui,  184,  5. 

Titles,  superlat.  as,  444,  1,  N. 

-tivus,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

Tmesis,  030,  V..  3. 

*  To,'  how  translated,  384,  3. 

-to,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-to  for  to?'  in  imperat.,  240,  5. 

Tojdtrus.  decl.,  117,  1,  3). 

-t6r,  suffix,  320,  II. 

-tor,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-not<J  1. 
Nouns  in  -tor,  320  ;  as  adjs.,  441,  3. 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


423 


-t5ria,  -t5rio,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 4.     0_in  toria,  587,  III.,  4. 
-torium,  -torius,  o  in,  587,  III.,  4. 

Tot,  demon.,  180,  4;  correlat.,  191. 
Totiens,  305,  IV. 
Totus^  demon.,  180, 4. 
Totus,  decl.,  151,  1 ;  w.  loc.  abl.,  425, 
2.     Totus  for  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N. 

Towns,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2 ; 

constr.,    428  ;    whither,    380,    II.  ; 

whence,  412,  II. ;  where,  425,  II. 
-tra,  suffix,  320,  I. 
Trader^  constr.,  534, 1,  N.  1,  (2). 
Trans  in  compds.,  344,  5;   w.  ace, 

372;  w.  two  aces.,  370.     Trans  w. 

ace.,  433 ;  433,  I. 
Transitive  verbs,  193,  I. 
Translation  of  subjunctive,  190,  II. ; 

infin.,  200,  I. 
Trees,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  II.,  2; 

names  of,  in  -W5,  decl.,  119,  2. 
Tr'es,  decl.,  175. 
Tribrach,  597,  II. 
Tribuo  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Tribus,  decl.,  117,  1,  1);  gend.,  118, 

-trie,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Tricolon,  p.  352,  foot-note  3. 

Trihemimeral  caesura,  p.  350,  foot- 
note 4. 

Trihemimeris,  597,  N.  4. 

Trimeter,  003,  N.  2. 

Tripodv,  597,  N.  4. 

Tristich,  GOO,  N. 

Trlstior,  tristis,  decl.,  154.  Trisiis 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 

Trisyllabic  reduplicated  perfects, 
quant,  of  first  two  syllables,  591. 

-trix,  nouns  in,  320  ;  as  adjs.,  441,  3. 

-tro,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Trochaic  verse,  003,  N.  1 ;  018  if. ; 
stanza,  631,  X. ;  caesura,  p.  350, 
foot-note  4. 

Trochee,  597,  II. ;  irrational,  598, 1, 1). 

Tropes,  037,  V.,  N. 

-trum,  nouns  in,  320. 

Truths,  gen.,  expressed  by  pres.  in- 
die, 407,  II.;  in  condit.,  508,  5; 
511,  1. 

Tt  changed  to  st,  iw,  or .«?,  35,  3. 

Tu,  dec].,  184.     /in  tibi,  581,  I.,  2. 

-tu,  -tQ,  suffixes,  320. 

-t  u  M» ,  -tudon,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot- 
note 3. 

Ttdl,  u  in,  590,  1. 

Turn,  p.  75,  foot-note  1 ;  304,  I.,  4 ; 
305,  IV.;  in  series,  554,  I.,  N.  2. 
Turn — turn,  cum — ticin,  554,  I.,  5* 


-turn,  nouns  in,  323. 

TuwmUus,  decl.,  119,  3. 

Tunc,  304j  I.,  4;  305,  IV. 

-tuo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  1. 

-tura,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 
Nouns  in  -tura,  320, 

-turio,  desideratives  in,  338. 

-turo,  suffix,  p.  158,  foot-note  4. 

Turpis  w.  supine,  547,  N.,  1. 

Tiirris,  decl.^  02. 

-turus,  suffix,  p.  155,  foot-note  1. 

Tiis,  defect..  133,  N. 

-tus,  adverbs  in,  304,  IV. ;  nouns  in, 
320  ;  adjs.  in,  328. 

-tus^  nouns  in,  324  ;  325. 

Tussis,  decl.,  02. 

-tut,  -tuti,  suffixes,  p.  158,  foot-note 
3. 

Tuns,  possess.,  185. 

Two  aces.,  373  ;  374.  Two  dats.,  390. 
Two  negatives,  553.  Two  copula- 
tives, 554,  I.,  5. 

u 

U,  u,  sound,  5  ;  10  ;  11.  C^w.  sound 
of  w,h,  4 ;  10,  4,  5).  U  parasitic, 
p.  4,  foot-note  5 ;  interchangea 
with  V,  29 ;  dropped,  30,  4.  6- 
nouns,  110.  Nouns  in  it,  d_cfect., 
134.  Sup.  in  ^?,  545  ;  547.  Uorv, 
final,  580, 1. ;  in  increments  of  decl., 
585 ;  585,  V. ;  conj.,  580 ;  580,  IV. 
^as  consonant,  008,  III.,  N.  2. 

-U.  suffix,  320. 

Uber,  neut.  plur.,  158, 1. 

Ubi,  304,  III.,  2  ;  305, 1.  ;  p.  151,  foot- 
note 1 ;  311,  1 ;  w.  part,  gen.,  p. 
209,  foot-note  „3 ;  in  temp,  clauses, 
518  ;  471,  4.  7  in  ubL  581,  I.,  2  ; 
quant,  of  ult.  in  compos.,  594,  9. 

Uoicumque,  ubiubl,  p.  75,  foot-note  3 ; 
305, N.  1. 

UbiTls,  305, 1. 

-ubus  for  -ibus,  117, 1. 

-uceus,  u  in^  587,  III.,  1. 

-ULCUS,  adjs.  m,  333,  5. 

-ud§,  u  in,  587,  I.,  2. 

-ugo,  nouns  in,  324,  N.  ;  u  in,  587, 
1.,  2. 

Ui,  sound,  12,  2. 

-uis  ^or  -us,  117,  2. 

-ula,  nouns  in,  321 ;  u  in,  587,  II.,  3. 

-ulentus,  u  in,  587,  IV.,  1. 

-ulis,  u  in,  587,  I.,  4. 

tJUus,  decl.,  151,  1 ;  use,  457 ._ 

Ulterior,  idtimus,  100.  Ultimus^ 
force  of,  440,  N.  2;  442,  N. 

Ultra  w.  ace,  433 ;  433,  I. 

-ulum,   -ulus,  in  nouns,  321 ;    in 


424 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


\ll 


\< 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


425 


adja.,  332;  333,  5;  compar.,  1G9,  3. 
U  in  -ulum^  -ulits^  587,  II.,  3. 

-mn  in  gen.  plur.  of  nouns,  57 ;  p. 
36,  foot-notes  3  and  4 ;  p.  38,  foot- 
note 2;  67;  adjs..  158,  2.  Nouns 
in  'U8  and  -wm,  neteroclites.  139 ; 
heterogeneous,  144.  Adverbs  in 
-t/m,  304,  I.,  3,  1);  num.,  181,  N. 
2;  superlat.,  306,  6.  Supine  in 
-um^  545;  546;  w.  eo^  546,  2;  w. 
irl^  546,  3. 

-um  for  drum^  49,  3  ;  di'um^  52,  3. 

-una,  u  in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Uncia,  646,  1,  N.  ;  646,  3,  1)— 4). 

Unclothing,  ace.  w.  verbs  of,  377. 

-uncula,  -unculus,  diminutives 
in,  321,  3. 

Unaej  undelibet.  305,  111. 

-undus,  -unai,  for  -endus,  -endi^ 
239. 

Unguis^  deci.,  62,  IV. 

Union,  dat.  w.  verbs  denoting,  385,  4, 
3). 

Unlike,  gen.  w.  adjs.  meaning,  391, 
II.,  4,  (2). 

Unquam^  305,  IV. 

-lint,  suffix,  320,  II. 

Vnus^  decl.,  151,  1 ;  175 ;  followed  by 
abl.  w.  prep.,  p.  209,  foot-note  1 ; 
gen.  of,  w.  possess.,  398,  3.  Unus 
w.  force  of  Eng.  adverb,  443,  N.  1, 
(2).     tJmis  qui  w.  subj.,  503,  II.,  1. 

-unus,  u  in,  587,  I.,  5. 

Unusqidsque^  decl.,  p.  77,  foot-note  1. 

-uo,  suffix,  320,  11.  Denom.  verbs 
in  -?/o.  335. 

-ur,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  decl.  of  adjs.  in, 
150,  N.;  gend.  of  nouns  in,  111; 
114. 

Urbs^  decl.,  64. 

Urging,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  499,  2. 

-urio,  u  in,  587,  IV.,  2. 

-us,  suffix,  320,  II. ;  adverbs  in,  304, 
I.,  3,  1);  nouns  in,  326,  2;  327. 
Us  for  e  in  voc,  52,  2.  Decl.  of 
nouns  in  ^/5,  51 ;  85;  116;  in?/^,  84; 
quant,  of  increm.,  585,  V.,  1.  Decl. 
of  names  of  trees  in  tis^  119,  2. 
Neuters  in  'us^  Decl.  II.,  51,  7. 
Gend.  of  nouns  in  tis^  us,  Decl.  III., 
Ill ;  115.  Nouns  in  us  and  um, 
hetcroclites,  139  ;  heterogeneous, 
144;  145.  Compar.  of  adjs.  in  us 
preceded  by  vowel,  169,  2.  Us  or 
us  final,  580,  III.,  w.  N.  2 ;  581,  IX. 

Useful,  dat.  w.  adjs.  signifying,  391, 

I.;  at/,  391,  II.,  1,  (2). 
Uspiam,  usquam,  305,  I. 
Usque  w.  preps.,  433,  N.  2.    Usque  w. 
ace,  437,  1. 


Usus  w.  abl.,  414,  IV. 

Ut,  uHj  304,  III.,  2  ;  305,  V. ;  311 ;  p. 
151,  foot-note  1.  Ut,  ut  prlmum, 
*  as  soon  as,'  471,  4.  Ut  w.  subj. 
of  desire,  483,  1  ;  w.  subj.  in  ques- 
tions, 486,  II.,  N. ;  w.  subj.  of  pur- 
pose, 497,  II.  ;  after  verbs  of  lear- 
mg,  498,  III.,  N.  1.  Ut  n'e,  ut  non, 
for  ne,  499,  1.  Ut  omitted,  499,  2; 
502,  1.  Ut  w.  sub],  of  result,  500, 
II.  Ut  si  w.  subj.  in  condit.,  513, 
II.  ^l{inconcess.,515.  III.  Ut — sic, 
ut — ita,  involving  concess.,  515,  N. 
5.  Ut — ita  w.  superlat.,  555,  11.,  1. 
Ut  w.  relat.,  517,  3, 1).  Ut  m  temp, 
clauses,  518.  Ut  quisqiie — ita,  458, 
2.  Quant,  of  ult.  of  uti  in  compds., 
594.  9. 

-ut,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  78. 

Uter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

Uter,  decl.,  151,  1 ;  correlat.,  191. 

Utercunqae,  uteriibet,  uterque,  utervis, 
decl.,  151,  N.  2.  Uterque,  constr., 
897,  N.  2;  meaning  and  use,  459, 
4;  w.  plur.  verb,  461,  3.  i«  in 
utervls,  581,  VUI.,  3,  N. 

Uil,  see  ut. 

-utim,  u  in,  587,  I.,  7. 

UtlnaiJi  w.  subj.  of  desire,  483,  1. 

Utor,  constr.,  421,  I.  ;  421,  N.  4;  ge- 
rundive, 544,  2,  N.  5. 

Utpote,  311,  7;  w.  relat.,  517,  3,  1). 

Utrinde,  304,  III.,  N. 

Utrum,  310,  2,  N. ;  311,  8;  353. 

-utus,  u  in,  587,  I.j  7. 

Uu  avoided,  p.  15,  loot-note  1. 

-uus,  adis.  in,  333,  6. 

-ux,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97;  -ux,  97, 
N.  1. 

V 

V  originally  not  distinguished  from 
u,  2,  5.  "Sound  of  v,  7.  V  inter- 
changed w.  ?/,  29  ;  treated  as  guttu- 
ral, 30,  N.  1  ;  changed  to  c,  33,  1, 
N. ;  dropped,  36,  4. 

-va,  suffix,  320,  I. 

Vacuus  w.  gen.,  p.  210,  foot-note  3. 

Vae,  312,  3 ;  w.  dat.,  381,  N.  3,  3;. 

Vdh,  interj.,  312,  1. 

Vald^  quam  m  adverb,  phrase,  305, 
N.  4. 

Value,  gen.  of,  404.  Gen.  w.  verbs  of 
valuing,  404. 

Vannus,  gend.,  ^3,  1,  (2). 

Variable  rad.  vowel,  20,  N.  2 ;  57,  2  ; 
58,  1,  2);  60,  1,  2);  61,  1,  2). 

Variation  in  quant,  of  stem-syllables, 
593,  1. 

Varieties  of  verse,  609.     ^ 


!'i 


Vds,  decl.,  136,  2. 

Vas,  a  in,  579,  3;  quant,  of  increm., 
585,  I.,  4,  (2). 

Vdtes,  decl.,  p.  36,  foot-note  4. 

Ve,  insep.  prep.,  308 ;  e  in,  594,  2. 

Ve,  ml,  310,  2  ;  554,  II.,  2.  Fel—vel, 
554,  II.,  N.  Position  of  vel  in  po- 
etry, 569,  III.,  N. ;  in  prose,  569, 
III.,  4. 

Velut,  311,  2 ;  554,  II.,  2.  Velut,  ve- 
lut  si,  in  condit.,  513,  II. 

Vendlis  w.  abl.,  p.  226,  foot-note  1. 

Venit  in  mentem  w.  gen.,  406,  N. 

Venter,  decl.,  65,  1,  2). 

V'er  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4) ;  quant. 

of  increm.,  585,  III..  3. 
Verb  stems,  format,  of,  249  if. 
Verbal  endings,   analysis  of,   241  ff. 
Verbal  roots,  314,  I.     Verbal  nouns 
in  u  defect.,  134.     Verbal  nouns  w. 
infin.,  533,  3,  N.  3. 
Verbs,  Etymology  of,  192  ff.;  classes, 
193 ;    voice,  mood,    tense,   numb., 
pers.,  194  ff. ;  infin.,  ^er.,  sup.,  par- 
ticip.,   200;    conj.,   201    ff. ;    prin. 
parts,  202 ;  paradigms,  204  ff. ;  com- 
I)arat.  view,  213  ff. ;  verbal  inflec- 
tions, 220  ff..;  svstems,  222;  synop- 
sis,  223  ff.;    dep.   verbs,    231  ff. ; 
periphrast.  conj.,  233  ff. ;  peculiari- 
ties  in  conj.,  235  ff.  ;    analysis  of 
verbal  endings,  241  ff.  ;  tense-signs, 
242  ff.  ;  mood-signs,  244  tf. ;   pers. 
endings,  247  ff.  ;  format,  of  stems, 
249  ff. ;  pres.  stem,  250  ;  251  ;  perf. 
stem,  252  ff. ;  sup.  stem,  256 ;  clas- 
sification, 257  ff. ;  Conj.  1.,  257  ff. ; 
Conj.  II.,  261  ff. ;  Conj.  III.,  209  ff.  ; 
Conj.  IV.,  284  ff.  ;  irreg.  verbs,  289 
ff. ;  defect.,  297  ff.  ;  impers.,  298  ff.  ; 
derivation,   335  ff. ;   denom.,   335 ; 
frequent.,  336 ;  incept.,  337  ;  desid- 
erat.,  338;    dimin.,  339;   compds., 
344. 
Verbs,   Syntax  of,  460  ff. ;  agree- 
ment, 460  ff.      Verb  omitted,  368, 
3;    523,  I.,  N.     Voices,   464;   465. 
Indie,  and  tenses,  466  ff.     Subj.  and 
tenses,  477  ff. ;  subj.  in  prin.  clauses, 
483  ff.     Imperat.  and  tenses,  487  ff. 
Subord.   clauses,   490  ff.  ;    seq.   of 
tenses,  490  ff.    Purpose,  497  ff. ;  re- 
sult, 500  ff. ;  condit.  sentences,  506 
ff. ;    concess.   clauses,   515 ;    causal 
clauses,   510;    517;   temp,   clauses, 
518  ff*. ;  indir.  disc,  522  ff.  :  indir. 
clauses,  528  ff.    Infin.,  532  ft.    Sub- 
stant.  clauses,  540.     Ger.,  541 ;  542. 
Gerundive,  543 ;  544.     Supines,  545 
ff.     Particip.,  548  ff.     Position  of 


modifiers  of  verb,  567.    -6,  o,  in 

verbs,  581,  II.,  2  ;  -a,  581,  III.,  3. 
Fdr^,  304,  11.,  2.      '       '        '         ' 
Vereor,  constr.,  p.  274,  foot-note  3. 
Vergil,  versification,  630. 
Vero,  p.   146,   foot-note  1 ;    310,   3 ; 

554,  III.,  2  and  4;  position,  569, 

III. 
Verse,  caesura  of,  p.  357,  foot-note  1. 
Verses,  601 ;  name,  603  :  varieties,  609. 
Versification,    596    ff.      Feet,    597. 

Verses,  601 ;   names  of,  603 ;    604. 

Figures  of  pros.,  608.     Varieties  of 

verse,  609. 
Versus,  p.  145,  foot-note  5;  w.  ace, 

433  ;  as  adverb,  433,  N.  2  ;  position, 

569,  II. 
Verto  w.  two  dats.,  390,  N.  1,  2). 
Veru^  decl.,  117,  1,  2). 
Verum,   310,   3;    554,   III.,   2;    7id/i 

solum  (non  modo  or  non  tantum) — 

'verum  etiam,    554,   I.,  5.      Verum, 

Derumtamen,  resumptive,  554,  IV.,  3. 
Verumtamen,  554^  III.,  3. 
Vervex,  quant,  of  mcrem.,  585,  III.,  3. 
Vescor,  constr.,  421,  I. ;  421,  N.  4. 
Vesper,  decl.,  51,  4.     Vesper  (for  ves- 

peris),  decl.,  62,  N.  2. 
Vespera  without  plur.,  130,  1,  4). 
Vespertinus,  i  in,  p.  345,  foot-note  5. 
Vestrds,  decl.,  185,  N.  3. 
Vestri,  vestrum,  446,  N.  3. 
Veto,    constr.,    p.    310,  foot-note   1; 

'vetor,  534,  1,  N.  1. 
Vetus,  decl.,  158  ;  compar.,  163, 1,  N. ; 

167,  2. 
Vlclniae,  locat.,  p.  229,  foot-note  1. 
Vicimis  w.  dat.,  p.  205,  foot-note  1. 
Vicis,  defect.,  133,  1. 
VldL^m,  581,  IV.,  3. 
VidUicet,  304,  IV.,  N.  2. 
Videor,  constr.,  534,  1^  N.  1,  (1). 
Vir,  decl.,  51,  4,  1) ;  i  in,  579,  3. 
Virgo,  decl.,  60. 
Virtus,  decl.,  58. 
Virus,  decl.,  51,  7  ;  gend..  53,  2. 
Vu,  decl. ,   ^Q',    p.   38,  ibot-note  4 ; 

quant,  of  increm.,  585,  IV.,  2. 
Vixdum,  555,  I.,  1. 
-VO,  suffix,  320,  II. 
Vocative,  irreg.,  52,  2 ;  68,  3.     Syn- 
tax, 369.     Voc.  in  exclamat.,  381, 
N.  3,  1).     Position  of  voc,  569,  VI. 
/in  Greek  voc  sincr.,  581,  I.,  2;  -d 
in,  581,  III.,  2;  -es^in,  581,  VI.,  3; 
-its  in  plur.,  581,  IX.,  2. 
Voices,  195;  464;  465. 
Void  w.  eth.  dat.,  389,  N.  2 ;  w.  subj., 
Y>.  274,  foot-note  1 ;  499,  2  •  w.  in- 
fin., p.  310,  foot-note  1.     Volens  w. 


426 


INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS, 


dat.  of  possess.,  387,  N.  3.  Increm. 
oi'volo  and  compds.,  586,  1. 

Volucer^  decl.,  153,  N.  1,  1). 

Volucris^  p.  36,  foot-note  3. 

-volus,  compds.  in,  342,  1 ;  compar., 
164. 

Votl^  constr.,  410,  III.,  N.  2. 

Vowels.  3,  I.  ;  sounds,  5 ;  9  ff. ;  15, 
1.  Classilication  of  vowels,  3,  I. 
Phonet.  changes,  20  ff.  Vowels 
lengthened,  20  ;  shortened,  21  ; 
weakened,  22  ;  contracted,  23  ; 
changed,  24 ;  assimilated,  25 ;  dis- 
simiiated,  26;  dropped,  27;  inter- 
changed with  consonants,  28 ;  29. 
Variable  vowel,  20,  N.  2;  57,  2; 
58,  1,  2) ;  60.  1,  2)  ;  61,  1,  2). 
Favorite  vowels,  24.  Vowels  de- 
veloped by  liquids  or  nasals,  29,  N. 
Order  of  vowels  in  strength,  22. 
Themat.  vowel,  p.  94,  foot-note  1 ; 
251.  Vowel-stems,  compar.  of  adjs. 
in,  162,  N.  Final  vowel  elided, 
608,  I. ;  shortened  in  hiatus,  608, 
II.,  N.  3.  Quant,  before  two  con- 
sonants or  a  double  cons.,  651. 

Vulgus^  decl.,  51,  7 ;  gend.,  53,  2. 

Vulpecula^  p.  159,  foot-note  1. 

-VUS,  adjs.  in,  333,  5. 

W 

Want,  gen.  w.  verbs  of,  410,  V.,  1. 
Watches  of  night,  645,  1. 
Way,  adverbs  of,  305,  N.  2,  3). 
Weak  caesura,  p.  356,  foot-note  4. 


Weakening  of  vowels,  22  ;  diphthongs, 
23,  N. 

Weights,  Eoman,  646 ;  648. 

'  Wife,'  apparent  ellipsis  of,  398,  1, 
N.  2. 

Winds,  gend.  of  names  of,  42,  I.,  2. 

Wishing,  constr.  w.  verbs  of,  535,  II. 

Without,  constr.  w.  verbs  of  being 
without,  414,  I. 

Women,  names  of,  649,  4. 

Words,  formation  of,  313  ff. ;  deriva- 
tion, 321  ff. ;  arrang.,  559  ff. 


X 

X,  sound,  13,  II. ;  dropped,  36,  3,  N. 
2.  Decl.  of  nouns  in  ic,  64 ;  65,  3  ; 
91  ff*. ;  gend.,  105  ;  108.  X  length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  II. 


Y  only  in  foreign  words.  2,  6  ;  sound, 
5,  2;  10  ff.  "Decl.  ot  nouns  in  y, 
73  ;  gend..  111.  1^ or  y,  final,  580, 
T. ;  in  increments,  585. 

-ys,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  68,  2 ;  86 ; 
gend.,  107.     Ys  final,  580,  III. 

-yx,  -yx,  decl.  of  nouns  in,  97,  N.  2. 


Z  only  in  foreign  words,  2,  6  ;  length- 
ens preceding  syllable,  576,  11. 
Zeugma,  636,  II. ,  1. 


\l 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


437 


TABLE 


SHOWING   THE  CORRESPONDING  ARTICLES  IN  THE 

TWO  EDITIONS, 


OLD. 
1-4. 

5,  6. 

7... 


NEW.    OLD. 


.1-4 
...9 

..10 


8 11 

9 12 

10-12 13 

13 14,1 

14 14,  2 

15 5 

16 6 

17 7 

18 8 

19 15 

20 16 

21 16,  I. 

22 16,  II. 

23 16,111. 

24 17 

25... 18 

26 19 

27 20 

28 24 

28,  2,2) 25,  1 

29 21 

30 22 

31 27 

32 23 

— 26,  28 

33 30 

34 36,  5,  1) 

35 31,  1 

— 32,  35 

36 36,  2 

37-120 37-120 

120,  "3.: 121 

120,  4 122 

121 123 

122 47,  note  1 


123. 


124-189 124-189 

190 190,  1 

191 190,  2 

— 191 

192-195 192-195 

196,  1 196 

196,11 200 

197 197 


NEW. 


198,  1 197,  N.  1 

198,  2 198 

198,  3 197,  N.  2 

199 199 

200 201 

201 202 

202 203 

203 203,  1 

204-212 204r-212 

213 220 

214 221 

215 222 

216,  217,  1 223 

217,11 224 

218,  1 225 

218,11 226 

219,  1 227 

219,11 228 

220,  1 229 

220,11 230 

221 217 

222 218 

223 219 

224 — 

225 231 

226 232 

227-230 — 

231 233 

232 234 

233 234,  N. 

234 235 

235 236 

236 237 

237 238 

238 239 

239 240 

240,  1 213,  214 

240,  II.  and  III.. 215,  216 

241-256 241-256 

257 256,  1 

258,  I.,  1...30;  36,3,1) 

258,  I.,  2 36,  2 

258,  I.,  3 33.  1 

258,  I.,  4 34,  1,JN\ 

258,  I.,  5 36,  3,  N.  3 

258,  II.,  land  2.... 33, 1 
258,  II.,  3 34,  N. 


OLD.  NEW. 

258,  II.,  4 29 

259 257 

260 258 

260,  1  and  2.. 257,  notes 

1  and  2 

261 259,  1 

261^1  and  2. ..  259,  notes 

1  and  2 

262 259,  2 

263 260 

264 261 

265 262 

266 262,  N.  1 

267 262,  N.  2 

268 263 

269,  1 265 

269,11 264 

270,  1 267,1 

270,  II.,  1 266 

270,  II.,  2 267,  2 

270,  III 267,  3 

271 268 

272,  1 269 

272,11 270 

273,  I.,l 271,  1 

273,  I.,  2 272,  1 

273,  II.,  1 271,  2 

273,  II.,  2 272,  2 

273,  III 272,  3 

274,  275,1 273,274 

275,11 275 

276 276 

276,  1 277,  N. 

277-279 277-279 

280 272,  N.  1 

281 272,  N.  2 

282 280 

282,  1 281 

282,11 282 

283-285 283-285 

286,  1 286 

286,11 287 

287 287,  N. 

288-303 288-303 

304 305,  N.  2 

305 306 

306 307 


428 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


I/ 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES. 


OLD.  NEW. 

307 308 

308,  309 309 

310-312 310-312 

813,  1 313 

313,11 340 

313,1 313,  N.  2 

— 314-320 

314,  315 321 

316 322 

317 323 

318 324 

319 325 

320,  321 326,  327 

322,  323 328 

324 329 

325 330 

326 331 

327 332 

328 333 

329 834 

830,  331 335 

332,  1 336 

332,11 337 

332,  III 338 

332,  IV 339 

333-337 304,  305 

338,  I.-IIL,  1 340 

338,  2 344,  5 

338,  3 344,  6 

339 341 

339,  1 343,11. 

839,  2 341,1 

840 342 

841 344,  1-4 

842 304,  805 

843 345 

844 346 

345,  1 347 

345,11 348 

345,1X1 349 

346,  1 850 

846,  II.,  1 351 

846,  II.,  2 353 

846,  II.,  3 352 

346,  III 354 

346,  IV 855 

847 356 

348 357 

849 357,  1 

oOU. •••••••••••••  «oOi s  ^ 

C'^'i-  ••••••••••••••••  «OtyO 

352 859 

853 360 

854 361,  1 

355 361,  2 

856 861,  3 

357-361 — 

362,  363 362,363 

363,  4- 864 


OLD.  NEW. 

364,  365 365 

366 — 

— 366,  367 

867,  368 368 

869-371 369-371 

371,  4 372 

371,  6 371,  IV. 

371,  6 464 

371,  7 371,1.,  N. 

372 — 

373,874 373,  374 

374,  4 534 

374,  6 875 

374,  6 376 

374,  7 377 

375 536 

376 — 

377 370,  II. 

378 379 

879 380 

880 378 

381 381 

882,  383 382,  383 

384-396 384-396 

396,  III.......: 397 

397 V.'. 398 

398,1 396,  v.,  N.  3 

398,  2 395,  N.  2 

398,  3..396,  IL,N.;  396, 

in.,  N.  2 

398,  4.. 396,  III.,  N.  1; 

397,  N.  3 

398,  5 384,  4,  N.  2 

399,  1-4 399 

399,  5 400 

400 — 

401,402 401,402 

402,  land  2....  404,  405 

402,  3 401,  N.  4 

403 403 

404,1 401,  N.  3 

405 — 

406-408 406-408 

409 410,  V. 

410-410,  2 409 

410,  3-7 410 

411,1 397,4 

411,  2 398,5 

412,413 367;  411 

414-414,  2 413;  416 

414,3 419,111. 

414,4 418;  420 

414,  5  and  6 415,  I. 

414,7.. 418;  419,1.;  419,1 

415 — 

416 422 

417 417 

418 423 

419,1 421,1. 


OLD.  NEW. 

419,11 425,  1,  N. 

419,  III.. 421,  II.;   414, 

I.  and  III. 

419,  IV.. 421,  III.;  425, 

1,  N. 

419,  V 414,  IV. 

419,  2..  421,  notes  land  2 

419,  3 414,  notes  2-4 

419,4,1) 421,  N.  4 

419,4,3) 421,  N.  3 

420 367;  411 

421..425,I.  andll.  ;  412 
422 425,1  and  2 

422,  2 412,  2 

423 425,  3 

423,  1 412,  3 

424 426 

— 427,  428 

425 413-415 

426 429 

427 430 

428 419,  II.  ;  419,  2 

429 424 

430,  431 431 

432-440 432-440 

441,  land  2 441 

441,4 440,  N.  4 

441,5 395,  N.  2 

441,  6 440  notes  l-3_ 

442-463 442-^nT 

464 ."T*95*"~" 

465-465,11 464 

465,  1-3 465 

466-474 466-474 

— 475 

475 476 

476 478 

477 479,  480 

478 481,  482 

479 496 

480 490,  491 

481,  1 492 

481,11 493 

481,  III 494 

481,  III.,  1  and  2.... 496 

481,  IV 495,11. 

481,  V 495,111. 

481,  VI 495,  IV. 

482..495,I.,VI.,andVII. 
483,  484 477 

485,  486 485,486 

486,  4  and  6.. 485,  notes 

486,5 518,  1 

487,488 483,484 

488,1-5 483,1-5 

489 497;  500 

490 497,  1:  500 

491 '.497,  1 

492,493 498,499 


f\ 


K  ' 


OLD.  NEW. 

493,  4 483,  3,  N. 

494 500 

495 501 

495,  2,  2).... 486,  II.,  N. 

496 502 

497 497,  2 

498 504 

499 497,  2 

500 497;  500 

500,  3 503,  N.  3 

501 503 

— 505 

502 506 

503,  I.  and  II 513 

503,  III 507 

604 509,  510 

505 513,  I. 

506 513,11. 

507-510 507-510 

510,  2 511,  2 

611-511,  2 511 

611,  3 512 

612 511 

613 507,  2 

514 514 

515,  516 515 

517,  1 617 

517,11 516 

618,1 517;  515,111. 

618,  II 521 

519 517 

520 516 

521,  1 519,  2 

621,11 520 

522 519 

523 520 

524 528,  2,  N. 

525,  526 529 

527 528;  529,  II. 

528 522 

529,  530 523 

531,  532 524,  525 

532,  2  and  3 527 

532,4 525,  2 

633 526;  530 

534-537 487;  489 

538,  1 488 

538,  2 489,  1) 

— 531 

539 — 

540-544 537 

545-547 536 

548 532 

549-549,  8 538 

549,4 534,  1 

550 633-535 

551 535 

652,  1 533,  I. 

552,  2 634 


OLD. 


NEW. 


652,  3  and  4 533,  II. 

553,  I.-IV 539 

553,  V 533,  II. 

554 540 

555 540,  I. 

556,  I... 538,  1;  540,  N. 
556, 1.,  land  2..  501,  i.,  2 
656,lI.andIII..501,I.,l 

557..^ 540,  I. 

658,  1.,  1 535,  I. 

558,  I.,  2 498,1. 

558,  II.,  1 533,  I.,  1 

558,  II.,  2.... 498,  I.,  N. 

658,  III 498,11. 

658,  IV 501,11.,  1 

658,  V 535,111. 

558,  VI 498,1. 

558,VI.,2and3..535,II. 

559 541 

560,  561 542 

562 543,  544 

563 542,1.;  544,1 

564 542,11.;  544,  2 

565. .  542,  III. ;  544,  notes 

2  and  5 

566 542,  IV.  ;  544,  2 

667,  668 545 

569 546 

570 547 

571-574 550 

575 548 

576-578 549 

579 549,  5 

580 549,  N.  2 

581 549,  N.  1 

582,  583 551 

584 552 

585 553 

586 553,  N. 

687 554 

588 555 

689 556 

590 657 

591 558 

592 559 

693 560 

694 561 

595 562 

596 563 

597.,.».^. .  )#^ .  .<i . . . V  ..§64, 
598j  ....-:..%.»...*..  56a 
699  >.,.*. . » » t .  .^  ; ,,.  T*  ,66<3 
600 567 

602. .  f  .«.».  .•.  #.  jf . .  • .  J  .^5GSr 
bOj3  ..*..».••.«..»*..«  .57' 
604!.^.'.  ..•..•...•.  ..!.*^572 

605 573 

606..? >..t?f .  .^.'570 


OLD. 


429 


NEW. 


* 


*  e 


607 574 

608 575 

609 575,  foot-note  1 

610 576,  I. 

611 576,11. 

611,  2 678 

612 577 

613 579 

614 580,  I. 

615 581,  III. 

616 581,  IV. 

617 580,  I. 

618 581,  I. 

619 580,  I. 

620 581,11. 

621 580,11. 

622 580,  III. 

623 .•.581,  V. 

624 581,  VI. 

625 581,  VII. 

626 581,  VIII. 

627 581,  IX. 

628.... 580,  III.;  576,  I. 

629 582 

630 583 

631 584 

632 585 

633 585,  I. 

634 585,  II. 

635 585,111. 

636 585,  IV. 

637 585,  V. 

638 585 

639 586 

640 586,1. 

641 586,11. 

642 586 

643 586,  III. 

644 586,  IV. 

645 587,1. 

646 587,11. 

647 587,111. 

648 587,  IV. 

— 588,  589 

649 595 

650 692 

651 590 

652 591 

653 593 

f  Vt)4  #.^..f...<t... Oj-i: 

)    WU^  •(..•.  .a  ..........Oj'i 

550  .;..:..*.*.^ 597 

657,  658 698 

^:6ti0?.».  ..i..»,.; 600 

*►  (y3IVt .  .t . . .  t 601 

•66^^.  .•...!....• 602 

663 603 

•564.».V.?../ 604 


•  •  •     •  • 


« 


I 


*{l 


430 


TABLE  OF  OLD  AND  NEW  ARTICLES, 


OLD.  NEW. 

665 605 

666 606 

667 601,  N.  3 

668 607,N. 

669 608 

670 609 

671 610 

672 610,  1-3 

673 611 

674 611,  4  and  5 

— 612 

675 613 

676 6U 

676,  2 615 

677,  1 616 

677,11 617 

677,111 628,1. 

678 .•.633,  II.,  note  3 

679 618 

680 620 


D.  APPLETON  &  CO:S  PUBLIC  A  TIONS, 


OLD. 


NEW. 

..619 
..621 
..622 
..623 
..624 
..625 
..626 


681 

682 

683 

684 

685 

686 

687 

688,  689 628,  II.-V. 

690... 628,  VI.  and  VII. 

691 627,  628 

691,  V 629.  I. 

692 628,  IX. 

693 631,  XV. 

694 631,  XIV. 

695 629,11. 

696-699 630 

700 631 

701 632 

— 633 

702 634  1 


OLD.  NEW. 

703 635 

704 636 

705 637 

— 638,  639 

706 640 

707 641 

708 642 

709 643 

710 644 

711 645 

712 646 

713 647 

714 648,  I. 

715 648,  II. 

716 648,111. 

717 648,IV. 

718 648,  V. 

719 649,  1 

720 650 

— 651 


Select  Orations  of  M.  TuUius  Cicero  : 

With  Notes,  for  the  use  of  Schools  and  Colleges.  By  E.  A.  JOHN- 
SON, Professor  of  Latin  in  the  University  of  New  York.  12mo, 
459  pages. 

This  edition  of  Cicero's  Select  Orations  possesses  some  special  advantages  for  the  stu- 
dent which  are  both  new  and  important.  It  is  the  only  edition  which  contains  the  im. 
proved  text  that  has  been  prepared  by  a  recent  careful  collation  and  correct  deciphering 
of  the  best  manuscripts  of  Cicero's  writings.  It  is  the  work  of  the  celebrated  Orelli,  Mad- 
vig,  and  Klotz,  and  has  been  done  since  the  appearance  of  Orelli's  complete  edition.  The 
Notes,  by  Professor  Johnson,  of  the  New  York  University,  have  been  mostly  selected, 
with  great  care,  from  the  best  German  authors,  as  well  as  the  English  edition  of  Arnold. 

From  Thomas  Chase,  Tutor  in  Latin  in  Harvard  University. 

"An  edition  of  Cicero  like  Johnson's  has  long  been  wanted ;  and  the  excellence  of  the 
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points  of  construction  xmd  interpretation,  bear  witness  to  the  Editor's  familiarity  \vith 
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"  It  seems  to  us  an  improvement  upon  any  edition  of  these  Orations  that  haa  beea 
published  in  this  country,  and  will  be  found  a  valuable  aid  in  their  studies  to  the  lovcm 
ofclaflsicalliterature." — Troy  Daily  Whig, 


Cicero  de  Ojficiis : 


•    « 
• «   « 


\ » * 


>  ■  t  •  • 


1  d 


•  1 1 

'4 

> 
« 


»  «J 


* 


THB     END. 


ft  •' 


.*. 


'.* 


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f    > 

•      %  * 


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ft  • 

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1     »     (  r     ft 

>        (     f    •    «    • 
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With  English  Notes,  mostly  translated  from  Zumpt  and  Bonnell.    By 

THOMAS  A.  THACHER,  of  Yale  College.     12mo,  194  pages. 

In  this  edition,  a  few  historical  notes  have  been  introduced  in  cases  where  the  Dic- 
tionary in  common  use  has  not  been  found  to  contain  the  desired  mformation ;  the  design 
of  which  is  to  aid  the  learner  in  understanding  the  contents  of  the  treatises,  the  thoughts 
and  reasoning  of  the  author,  to  explain  grammatical  difficulties,  and  inculcate  a  knowl- 
edge of  grammatical  principles.  The  Editor  has  aimed  throughout  to  guide  rather  than 
cany  the  learner  through  difficulties ;  requiring  of  him  more  study,  in  consequence  of 
his  help,  than  he  would  have  devoted  to  the  book  without  it 

From  M.  L.  Stoeveb,  Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Literature  in  P&nn^l- 

vania  College. 

"I  have  examined  with  much  pleasure  Prof.  Thacher's  edition  of  Cicero  de  Officii», 
and  am  convinced  of  its  excellence.  The  Notes  have  been  prepared  with  great  care  and 
good  judgment.  Practical  knowledge  of  the  wants  of  the  student  has  enabled  the  Editor 
.to  furnish  just  the  kind  of  assistance  required;  grammatical  difficulties  are  removed,  and 
the  obscurities  of  the  treatise  are  explained,  the  interest  of  the  learner  is  elicited,  and  his 
industry  directed  rather  than  superseded.  There  can  be  but  one  opinion  with  regard  to 
the  merits  of  the  work,  and  I  trust  that  Professor  Thacher  will  be  disposed  to  continue 
ilk  labors  so  careftilly  commenced,  In  this  department  of  classical  learning.'* 


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Caesar^s  Commentaries  on  the  Gallic  War. 

With  English  Notes,  Critical  and  Explanatory ;  a  Lexicon,  Geographi- 
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acquaintance  with  the  classics  of  the  language.  Dr.  Spencer  has  not,  hke  some  commen- 
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From  Prof.  Owen,  of  the  Nmc  York  Free,  Academy. 
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